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For FSF edition 5. This Web page will undoubtedly continue to evolve. If you find an error in the Web page, please report it! See section Reporting Problems and Bugs for information on submitting problem reports electronically. As the maintainer of GNU awk , I once thought that I would be able to manage a collection of publicly available awk programs and I even solicited contributions.

Making things available on the Internet helps keep the gawk distribution down to manageable size. In the hopes of doing something more broad, I acquired the awklang. Late in , a volunteer took on the task of managing it. If you have written a gawk extension, please see The gawkextlib Project. Many people need to be thanked for their assistance in producing this manual. Jay Fenlason contributed many ideas and sample programs. Richard Mlynarik and Robert Chassell gave helpful comments on drafts of this manual.

Pierce of the Chemistry Department at UC San Diego, pinpointed several issues relevant both to awk implementation and to this manual, that would otherwise have escaped us. I would like to acknowledge Richard M. The following people in alphabetical order provided helpful comments on various versions of this book: Rick Adams, Dr.

Nelson H. Beebe, Karl Berry, Dr. Darrel Hankerson, Michal Jaegermann, Dr. Richard J. Robert J. Chassell provided much valuable advice on the use of Texinfo. He also deserves special thanks for convincing me not to title this Web page How to Gawk Politely. Karl Berry helped significantly with the TeX part of Texinfo. Bert and Rita Schreiber of Detroit for large amounts of quiet vacation time in their homes, which allowed me to make significant progress on this Web page and on gawk itself.

David Trueman deserves special credit; he has done a yeoman job of evolving gawk so that it performs well and without bugs. Although he is no longer involved with gawk , working with him on this project was a significant pleasure. The intrepid members of the GNITS mailing list, and most notably Ulrich Drepper, provided invaluable help and feedback for the design of the internationalization features.

Nelson Beebe, Andreas Buening, Dr. It has been and continues to be a pleasure working with this team of fine people. Notable code and documentation contributions were made by a number of people. See section Major Contributors to gawk for the full list. Thanks to Patrice Dumas for the new makeinfo program. Thanks to Karl Berry for his past work on Texinfo, and to Gavin Smith, who continues to work to improve the Texinfo markup language.

Robert P. Day, Michael Brennan, and Brian Kernighan kindly acted as reviewers for the edition of this Web page. Their feedback helped improve the final work. I would also like to thank Brian Kernighan for his invaluable assistance during the testing and debugging of gawk , and for his ongoing help and advice in clarifying numerous points about the language. We could not have done nearly as good a job on either gawk or its documentation without his help. Brian is in a class by himself as a programmer and technical author.

I have to thank him yet again for his ongoing friendship and for being a role model to me for over 30 years! Having him as a reviewer is an exciting privilege. It has also been extremely humbling I must thank my wonderful wife, Miriam, for her patience through the many versions of this project, for her proofreading, and for sharing me with the computer. I would like to thank my parents for their love, and for the grace with which they raised and educated me.

Finally, I also must acknowledge my gratitude to G-d, for the many opportunities He has sent my way, as well as for the gifts He has given me with which to take advantage of those opportunities. The basic function of awk is to search files for lines or other units of text that contain certain patterns. When a line matches one of the patterns, awk performs specified actions on that line.

Programs in awk are different from programs in most other languages, because awk programs are data driven i. Most other languages are procedural ; you have to describe, in great detail, every step the program should take. When working with procedural languages, it is usually much harder to clearly describe the data your program will process. For this reason, awk programs are often refreshingly easy to read and write.

When you run awk , you specify an awk program that tells awk what to do. The program consists of a series of rules it may also contain function definitions , an advanced feature that we will ignore for now; see section User-Defined Functions. Each rule specifies one pattern to search for and one action to perform upon finding the pattern.

Syntactically, a rule consists of a pattern followed by an action. The action is enclosed in braces to separate it from the pattern. Newlines usually separate rules. Therefore, an awk program looks like this:. There are several ways to run an awk program. If the program is short, it is easiest to include it in the command that runs awk , like this:.

When the program is long, it is usually more convenient to put it in a file and run it with a command like this:. Once you are familiar with awk , you will often type in simple programs the moment you want to use them. Then you can write the program as the first argument of the awk command, like this:. This command format instructs the shell , or command interpreter, to start awk and use the program to process records in the input file s. The quotes also cause the shell to treat all of program as a single argument for awk , and allow program to be more than one line long.

This format is also useful for running short or medium-sized awk programs from shell scripts, because it avoids the need for a separate file for the awk program. A self-contained shell script is more reliable because there are no other files to misplace. You can also run awk without any input files.

If you type the following command line:. This continues until you indicate end-of-file by typing Ctrl-d. We recommend putting this command into your personal startup file. This next simple awk program emulates the cat utility; it copies whatever you type on the keyboard to its standard output why this works is explained shortly :.

Sometimes awk programs are very long. In these cases, it is more convenient to put the program into a separate file. In order to tell awk to use that file for its program, you type:. The -f instructs the awk utility to get the awk program from the file source-file see section Command-Line Options. Any file name can be used for source-file.

For example, you could put the program:. This was explained earlier see section Running awk Without Input Files. Notice that in advice , the awk program did not have single quotes around it. The quotes are only needed for programs that are provided on the awk command line. If you want to clearly identify an awk program file as such, you can add the extension. You can do this on many systems. Self-contained awk scripts are useful when you want to write a program that users can invoke without their having to know that the program is written in awk.

This means that the awk utility reads your program and then processes your data according to the instructions in your program. The awk utility is thus termed an interpreter. Many modern languages are interpreted. The operating system then runs the interpreter with the given argument and the full argument list of the executed program. The first argument in the list is the full file name of the awk program. The rest of the argument list contains either options to awk , or data files, or both.

Some systems limit the length of the interpreter name to 32 characters. Often, this can be dealt with by using a symbolic link. It does not work. The operating system treats the rest of the line as a single argument and passes it to awk. Doing this leads to confusing behavior—most likely a usage diagnostic of some sort from awk. A comment is some text that is included in a program for the sake of human readers; it is not really an executable part of the program.

Comments can explain what the program does and how it works. Nearly all programming languages have provisions for comments, as programs are typically hard to understand without them. The awk language ignores the rest of a line following a number sign. For example, we could have put the following into advice :. The shell interprets the quote as the closing quote for the entire program. As a result, usually the shell prints a message about mismatched quotes, and if awk actually runs, it will probably print strange messages about syntax errors.

For example, look at the following:. The shell sees that the first two quotes match, and that a new quoted object begins at the end of the command line. It therefore prompts with the secondary prompt, waiting for more input. With Unix awk , closing the quoted string produces this result:. For short to medium-length awk programs, it is most convenient to enter the program on the awk command line. This is best done by enclosing the entire program in single quotes. This is true whether you are entering the program interactively at the shell prompt, or writing it as part of a larger shell script:.

Once you are working with the shell, it is helpful to have a basic knowledge of shell quoting rules. Before diving into the rules, we introduce a concept that appears throughout this Web page, which is that of the null , or empty, string. The null string is character data that has no value. In other words, it is empty. It is written in awk programs like this: "". In the shell, it can be written using single or double quotes: "" or ''.

Although the null string has no characters in it, it does exist. For example, consider this command:. Here, the echo utility receives a single argument, even though that argument has no characters in it. In the rest of this Web page, we use the terms null string and empty string interchangeably. Now, on to the quoting rules:. Because certain characters within double-quoted text are processed by the shell, they must be escaped within the text. The leading backslash is stripped first.

Thus, the example seen previously in Running awk Without Input Files :. In the second case, awk attempts to use the text of the program as the value of FS , and the first file name as the text of the program! This results in syntax errors at best, and confusing behavior at worst. Mixing single and double quotes is difficult. You have to resort to shell quoting tricks, like this:.

This program consists of three concatenated quoted strings. The first and the third are single-quoted, and the second is double-quoted. Another option is to use double quotes, escaping the embedded, awk -level double quotes:. This option is also painful, because double quotes, backslashes, and dollar signs are very common in more advanced awk programs. A third option is to use the octal escape sequence equivalents see section Escape Sequences for the single- and double-quote characters, like so:.

Here, the two string constants and the value of sq are concatenated into a single string that is printed by print. The following example, courtesy of Jeroen Brink, shows how to escape the double quotes from this one liner script that prints all lines in a file surrounded by double quotes:.

In MS-Windows escaping double-quotes is a little tricky because you use backslashes to escape double-quotes, but backslashes themselves are not escaped in the usual way; indeed they are either duplicated or not, depending upon whether there is a subsequent double-quote. The MS-Windows rule for double-quoting a string is the following:. Many of the examples in this Web page take their input from two sample data files. The second data file, called inventory-shipped , contains information about monthly shipments.

In both files, each line is considered to be one record. The columns are aligned using spaces. The data file inventory-shipped represents information about shipments during the year. Each record contains the month, the number of green crates shipped, the number of red boxes shipped, the number of orange bags shipped, and the number of blue packages shipped, respectively. There are 16 entries, covering the 12 months of last year and the first four months of the current year.

An empty line separates the data for the two years:. This type of pattern is called a regular expression , which is covered in more detail later see section Regular Expressions. The pattern is allowed to match parts of words. In an awk rule, either the pattern or the action can be omitted, but not both.

If the pattern is omitted, then the action is performed for every input line. If the action is omitted, the default action is to print all lines that match the pattern. By comparison, omitting the print statement but retaining the braces makes an empty action that does nothing i. Many practical awk programs are just a line or two long. Following is a collection of useful, short programs to get you started.

Most of the examples use a data file named data. This is just a placeholder; if you use these programs yourself, substitute your own file names for data. For future reference, note that there is often more than one way to do things in awk.

At some point, you may want to look back at these examples and see if you can come up with different ways to do the same things shown here:. The sole rule has a relational expression as its pattern and has no action—so it uses the default action, printing the record. This example differs slightly from the previous one: the input is processed by the expand utility to change TABs into spaces, so the widths compared are actually the right-margin columns, as opposed to the number of input characters on each line.

This is an easy way to delete blank lines from a file or rather, to create a new file similar to the old file but from which the blank lines have been removed. The awk utility reads the input files one line at a time. For each line, awk tries the patterns of each rule. If several patterns match, then several actions execute in the order in which they appear in the awk program.

If no patterns match, then no actions run. After processing all the rules that match the line and perhaps there are none , awk reads the next line. However, see section The next Statement and also see section The nextfile Statement. This continues until the program reaches the end of the file. For example, the following awk program contains two rules:.

If a line contains both strings, it is printed twice, once by each rule. This is what happens if we run this program on our two sample data files, mail-list and inventory-shipped :. This example shows how awk can be used to summarize, select, and rearrange the output of another utility. This command prints the total number of bytes in all the files in the current directory that were last modified in November of any year.

Its output looks like this:. The sixth, seventh, and eighth fields contain the month, day, and time, respectively, that the file was last modified. Finally, the ninth field contains the file name. As a result, when awk has finished reading all the input lines, sum is the total of the sizes of the files whose lines matched the pattern. This works because awk variables are automatically initialized to zero.

After the last line of output from ls has been processed, the END rule executes and prints the value of sum. In this example, the value of sum is These more advanced awk techniques are covered in later sections see section Actions. Before you can move on to more advanced awk programming, you have to know how awk interprets your input and displays your output. By manipulating fields and using print statements, you can produce some very useful and impressive-looking reports.

Most often, each line in an awk program is a separate statement or separate rule, like this:. A newline at any other point is considered the end of the statement. The backslash must be the final character on the line in order to be recognized as a continuation character. A backslash followed by a newline is allowed anywhere in the statement, even in the middle of a string or regular expression.

We have generally not used backslash continuation in our sample programs. For this same reason, as well as for clarity, we have kept most statements short in the programs presented throughout the Web page. Backslash continuation is most useful when your awk program is in a separate source file instead of entered from the command line.

You should also note that many awk implementations are more particular about where you may use backslash continuation. For example, they may not allow you to split a string constant using backslash continuation. Thus, for maximum portability of your awk programs, it is best not to split your lines in the middle of a regular expression or a string. But the C shell behaves differently! There you must use two backslashes in a row, followed by a newline.

Note also that when using the C shell, every newline in your awk program must be escaped with a backslash. To illustrate:. To have the pattern and action on separate lines, you must use backslash continuation; there is no other option. Another thing to keep in mind is that backslash continuation and comments do not mix.

In this case, it looks like the backslash would continue the comment onto the next line. When awk statements within one rule are short, you might want to put more than one of them on a line. This also applies to the rules themselves. Thus, the program shown at the start of this section could also be written this way:. NOTE: The requirement that states that rules on the same line must be separated with a semicolon was not in the original awk language; it was added for consistency with the treatment of statements within an action.

The awk language provides a number of predefined, or built-in , variables that your programs can use to get information from awk. There are other variables your program can set as well to control how awk processes your data. In addition, awk provides a number of built-in functions for doing common computational and string-related operations. As we develop our presentation of the awk language, we will introduce most of the variables and many of the functions.

They are described systematically in Predefined Variables and in Built-in Functions. By using utility programs, advanced patterns, field separators, arithmetic statements, and other selection criteria, you can produce much more complex output. The awk language is very useful for producing reports from large amounts of raw data, such as summarizing information from the output of other utility programs like ls.

See section A More Complex Example. Programs written with awk are usually much smaller than they would be in other languages. This makes awk programs easy to compose and use. Often, awk programs can be quickly composed at your keyboard, used once, and thrown away. Because awk programs are interpreted, you can avoid the usually lengthy compilation part of the typical edit-compile-test-debug cycle of software development.

Complex programs have been written in awk , including a complete retargetable assembler for eight-bit microprocessors see section Glossary , for more information , and a microcode assembler for a special-purpose Prolog computer. If you find yourself writing awk scripts of more than, say, a few hundred lines, you might consider using a different programming language. The shell is good at string and pattern matching; in addition, it allows powerful use of the system utilities. Python offers a nice balance between high-level ease of programming and access to system facilities.

This chapter covers how to run awk , both POSIX-standard and gawk -specific command-line options, and what awk and gawk do with nonoption arguments. There are two ways to run awk —with an explicit program or with one or more program files. Here are templates for both of them; items enclosed in […] in these templates are optional:. Doing so makes little sense, though; awk exits silently when given an empty program.

If --lint has been specified on the command line, gawk issues a warning that the program is empty. Options begin with a dash and consist of a single character. GNU-style long options consist of two dashes and a keyword. The keyword can be abbreviated, as long as the abbreviation allows the option to be uniquely identified.

If a particular option with a value is given more than once, it is the last value that counts. The long and short options are interchangeable in all contexts. Read the awk program source from source-file instead of in the first nonoption argument. This option may be given multiple times; the awk program consists of the concatenation of the contents of each specified source-file.

See section Changing The Namespace , for more information on this advanced feature. Set the variable var to the value val before execution of the program begins. Provide an implementation-specific option. These options also have corresponding GNU-style long options. Note that the long options may be abbreviated, as long as the abbreviations remain unique. The full list of gawk -specific options is provided next. Signal the end of the command-line options.

It is also useful for passing options on to the awk program; see Processing Command-Line Options. Cause gawk to treat all input data as single-byte characters. In addition, all output written with print or printf is treated as single-byte characters. This can often involve converting multibyte characters into wide characters internally , and can lead to problems or confusion if the input data does not contain valid multibyte characters.

Specify compatibility mode , in which the GNU extensions to the awk language are disabled, so that gawk behaves just like BWK awk. Also see Downward Compatibility and Debugging. Print a sorted list of global variables, their types, and final values to file. If no file is provided, print this list to a file named awkvars.

No space is allowed between the -d and file , if file is supplied. Having a list of all global variables is a good way to look for typographical errors in your programs. This is a particularly easy mistake to make with simple variable names like i , j , etc.

Enable debugging of awk programs see section Introduction to the gawk Debugger. By default, the debugger reads commands interactively from the keyboard standard input. The optional file argument allows you to specify a file with a list of commands for the debugger to execute noninteractively. No space is allowed between the -D and file , if file is supplied. Provide program source code in the program-text.

This option allows you to mix source code in files with source code that you enter on the command line. This makes building the total program easier. However, this is no longer true. If you have any scripts that rely upon this feature, you should revise them. See section Changing The Namespace , for more information. Similar to -f , read awk program text from file. There are two differences from -f :. This option is particularly necessary for World Wide Web CGI applications that pass arguments through the URL; using this option prevents a malicious or other user from passing in options, assignments, or awk source code via -e to the CGI application.

Analyze the source program and generate a GNU gettext portable object template file on standard output for all string constants that have been marked for translation. See section Internationalization with gawk , for information about this option. Read an awk source library from source-file. This option is completely equivalent to using the include directive inside your program. It is very similar to the -f option, but there are two important differences.

First, when -i is used, the program source is not loaded if it has been previously loaded, whereas with -f , gawk always loads the file. Second, because this option is intended to be used with code libraries, gawk does not recognize such files as constituting main program input. Thus, after processing an -i argument, gawk still expects to find the main source code via the -f option or on the command line. Load a dynamic extension named ext. Extensions are stored as system shared libraries. The correct library suffix for your platform will be supplied by default, so it need not be specified in the extension name.

An alternative is to use the load keyword inside the program to load a shared library. This advanced feature is described in detail in Writing Extensions for gawk. Warn about constructs that are dubious or nonportable to other awk implementations. No space is allowed between the -L and value , if value is supplied. Some warnings are issued when gawk first reads your program. Others are issued at runtime, as your program executes.

The optional argument may be one of the following:. Cause lint warnings become fatal errors. This may be drastic, but its use will certainly encourage the development of cleaner awk programs. Only issue warnings about things that are actually invalid are issued. This is not fully implemented yet.

Some warnings are only printed once, even if the dubious constructs they warn about occur multiple times in your awk program. Thus, when eliminating problems pointed out by --lint , you should take care to search for all occurrences of each inappropriate construct. As awk programs are usually short, doing so is not burdensome.

Select arbitrary-precision arithmetic on numbers. Enable automatic interpretation of octal and hexadecimal values in input data see section Allowing Nondecimal Input Data. Use with care. Also note that this option may disappear in a future version of gawk. Enable pretty-printing of awk programs. Implies --no-optimize. By default, the output program is created in a file named awkprof. The optional file argument allows you to specify a different file name for the output.

No space is allowed between the -o and file , if file is supplied. NOTE: In the past, this option would also execute your program. This is no longer the case. At the moment, this includes just simple constant folding.

Optimization is enabled by default. This option remains primarily for backwards compatibility. However, it may be used to cancel the effect of an earlier -s option see later in this list. Enable profiling of awk programs see section Profiling Your awk Programs. By default, profiles are created in a file named awkprof. The optional file argument allows you to specify a different file name for the profile file.

No space is allowed between the -p and file , if file is supplied. The profile contains execution counts for each statement in the program in the left margin, and function call counts for each function. This disables all gawk extensions just like --traditional and disables all extensions not allowed by POSIX.

See section Common Extensions Summary for a summary of the extensions in gawk that are disabled by this option. Also, the following additional restrictions apply:. If you supply both --traditional and --posix on the command line, --posix takes precedence. Allow interval expressions see section Regular Expression Operators in regexps. Nevertheless, this option remains both for backward compatibility and for use in combination with --traditional.

Disable the system function, input redirections with getline , output redirections with print and printf , and dynamic extensions. Also, disallow adding filenames to ARGV that were not there when gawk started running. Print version information for this particular copy of gawk. This allows you to determine if your copy of gawk is up to date with respect to whatever the Free Software Foundation is currently distributing.

It is also useful for bug reports see section Reporting Problems and Bugs. Mark the end of all options. Any command-line arguments following -- are placed in ARGV , even if they start with a minus sign. As long as program text has been supplied, any other options are flagged as invalid with a warning message but are otherwise ignored. This is true only for --traditional and not for --posix see section Specifying How Fields Are Separated. The -f option may be used more than once on the command line.

If it is, awk reads its program source from all of the named files, as if they had been concatenated together into one big file. This is useful for creating libraries of awk functions. These functions can be written once and then retrieved from a standard place, instead of having to be included in each individual program. The -i option is similar in this regard.

As mentioned in Function Definition Syntax , function names must be unique. After typing your program, type Ctrl-d the end-of-file character to terminate it. Because it is clumsy using the standard awk mechanisms to mix source file and command-line awk programs, gawk provides the -e option. This does not require you to preempt the standard input for your source code, and it allows you to easily mix command-line and library source code see section The AWKPATH Environment Variable.

As with -f , the -e and -i options may also be used multiple times on the command line. If no -f option or -e option for gawk is specified, then awk uses the first nonoption command-line argument as the text of the program source code. Arguments on the command line that follow the program text are entered into the ARGV array; awk does not continue to parse the command line looking for options. For a Bourne-compatible shell such as Bash , you would add these lines to the.

For a C shell-compatible shell, 12 you would add this line to the. Any additional arguments on the command line are normally treated as input files to be processed in the order specified. See Assigning Variables on the Command Line. All the command-line arguments are made available to your awk program in the ARGV array see section Predefined Variables. Command-line options and the program text if present are omitted from ARGV.

All other arguments, including variable assignments, are included. The distinction between file name arguments and variable-assignment arguments is made when awk is about to open the next input file. At that point in execution, it checks the file name to see whether it is really a variable assignment; if so, awk sets the variable instead of reading a file.

Therefore, the variables actually receive the given values after all previously specified files have been read. The variable values given on the command line are processed for escape sequences see section Escape Sequences. In some very early implementations of awk , when a variable assignment occurred before any file names, the assignment would happen before the BEGIN rule was executed. The variable assignment feature is most useful for assigning to variables such as RS , OFS , and ORS , which control input and output formats, before scanning the data files.

It is also useful for controlling state if multiple passes are needed over a data file. Given the variable assignment feature, the -F option for setting the value of FS is not strictly necessary. It remains for historical compatibility.

Often, you may wish to read standard input together with other files. For example, you may wish to read one file, read standard input coming from a pipe, and then read another file. You may also use "-" to name standard input when reading files with getline see section Using getline from a File. And, you can even use "-" with the -f option to read program source code from standard input see section Command-Line Options. Some other versions of awk also support this, but it is not standard.

In most awk implementations, you must supply a precise pathname for each program file, unless the file is in the current directory. The search path is a string consisting of directory names separated by colons.

If that variable does not exist, or if it has an empty value, gawk uses a default path described shortly. The search path feature is particularly helpful for building libraries of useful awk functions. The library files can be placed in a standard directory in the default path and then specified on the command line with a short file name.

Otherwise, you would have to type the full file name for each file. By using the -i or -f options, your command-line awk programs can use facilities in awk library files see section A Library of awk Functions. Path searching is not done if gawk is in compatibility mode. This is true for both --traditional and --posix. See section Command-Line Options.

It treats a null entry in the path as indicating the current directory. NOTE: To include the current directory in the path, either place. Different past versions of gawk would also look explicitly in the current directory, either before or after the path search. As of version 4. This provides access to the actual search path value from within an awk program.

If the extension is not found, the path is searched again after adding the appropriate shared library suffix for the platform. The search path specified is also used for extensions loaded via the load keyword see section Loading Dynamic Extensions into Your Program. Those in the following list are meant to be used by regular users:. Specifies the interval between connection retries, in milliseconds.

On systems that do not support the usleep system call, the value is rounded up to an integral number of seconds. Specifies the time, in milliseconds, for gawk to wait for input before returning with an error. See section Reading Input with a Timeout. See section Using gawk for Network Programming. The environment variables in the following list are meant for use by the gawk developers for testing and tuning.

They are subject to change. The variables are:. Otherwise, the value should be a number, and gawk uses that number as the size of the buffer to allocate. This function may be marginally faster than the standard function. If this variable exists, gawk switches to reading source files one line at a time, instead of reading in blocks. Its purpose is to help isolate the source of a message, as there are multiple places that produce the same warning or error message.

Specifies the location of compiled message object files for gawk itself. This is passed to the bindtextdomain function when gawk starts up. This can cause gawk to be slower. Its purpose is to help isolate differences between the two regexp matchers that gawk uses internally. This specifies the amount by which gawk should grow its internal evaluation stack, when needed.

This specifies intended maximum number of items gawk will maintain on a hash chain for managing arrays indexed by integers. This specifies intended maximum number of items gawk will maintain on a hash chain for managing arrays indexed by strings. If this variable exists, gawk uses the mtrace library calls from the GNU C library to help track down possible memory leaks.

If the exit statement is used with a value see section The exit Statement , then gawk exits with the numeric value given to it. This is usually zero. This is usually one. If gawk exits because of a fatal error, the exit status is two. The include keyword can be used to read external awk source files. This gives you the ability to split large awk source files into smaller, more manageable pieces, and also lets you reuse common awk code from various awk scripts. In other words, you can group together awk functions used to carry out specific tasks into external files.

Note that source files may also be included using the -i option. Here is the test1 script:. So, to include external awk source files, you just use include followed by the name of the file to be included, enclosed in double quotes. NOTE: Keep in mind that this is a language construct and the file name cannot be a string variable, but rather just a literal string constant in double quotes. This is very helpful in constructing gawk function libraries.

If you have a large script with useful, general-purpose awk functions, you can break it down into library files and put those files in a special directory. Of course, you can keep library files in more than one directory; the more complex the working environment is, the more directories you may need to organize the files to be included. Given the ability to specify multiple -f options, the include mechanism is not strictly necessary. However, the include keyword can help you in constructing self-contained gawk programs, thus reducing the need for writing complex and tedious command lines.

In particular, include is very useful for writing CGI scripts to be run from web pages. The load keyword can be used to read external awk extensions stored as system shared libraries. Using load is completely equivalent to using the -l command-line option. For command-line usage, the -l option is more convenient, but load is useful for embedding inside an awk source file that requires access to an extension.

It also describes the ordchr extension. A regular expression , or regexp , is a way of describing a set of strings. Because regular expressions are such a fundamental part of awk programming, their format and use deserve a separate chapter. The simplest regular expression is a sequence of letters, numbers, or both. Such a regexp matches any string that contains that sequence. Other kinds of regexps let you specify more complicated classes of strings.

Initially, the examples in this chapter are simple. As we explain more about how regular expressions work, we present more complicated instances. A regular expression can be used as a pattern by enclosing it in slashes. Then the regular expression is tested against the entire text of each record. Normally, it only needs to match some part of the text in order to succeed. Regular expressions can also be used in matching expressions. These expressions allow you to specify the string to match against; it need not be the entire current input record.

Expressions using these operators can be used as patterns, or in if , while , for , and do statements. See section Control Statements in Actions. For example, the following is true if the expression exp taken as a string matches regexp :. This next example is true if the expression exp taken as a character string does not match regexp :. One use of an escape sequence is to include a double-quote character in a string constant.

Other escape sequences represent unprintable characters such as TAB or newline. There is nothing to stop you from entering most unprintable characters directly in a string constant or regexp constant, but they may look ugly. The following list presents all the escape sequences used in awk and what they represent. Unless noted otherwise, all these escape sequences apply to both string constants and regexp constants:. This often makes some sort of audible noise. Any further hexadecimal digits are treated as simple letters or numbers.

For many years, gawk would continue incorporating hexadecimal digits into the value until a non-hexadecimal digit or the end of the string was encountered. However, using more than two hexadecimal digits produced undefined results. A literal slash should be used for regexp constants only.

Because the regexp is delimited by slashes, you need to escape any slash that is part of the pattern, in order to tell awk to keep processing the rest of the regexp. A literal double quote should be used for string constants only. Because the string is delimited by double quotes, you need to escape any quote that is part of the string, in order to tell awk to keep processing the rest of the string. In gawk , a number of additional two-character sequences that begin with a backslash have special meaning in regexps.

See section gawk -Specific Regexp Operators. In a regexp, a backslash before any character that is not in the previous list and not listed in gawk -Specific Regexp Operators means that the next character should be taken literally, even if it would normally be a regexp operator. For complete portability, do not use a backslash before any character not shown in the previous list or that is not an operator. If you place a backslash in a string constant before something that is not one of the characters previously listed, POSIX awk purposely leaves what happens as undefined.

There are two choices:. This is what BWK awk and gawk both do. Because this is such an easy bug both to introduce and to miss, gawk warns you about it. Some other awk implementations do this. Suppose you use an octal or hexadecimal escape to represent a regexp metacharacter.

See Regular Expression Operators. Does awk treat the character as a literal character or as a regexp operator? Historically, such characters were taken literally. However, the POSIX standard indicates that they should be treated as real metacharacters, which is what gawk does.

In compatibility mode see section Command-Line Options , gawk treats the characters represented by octal and hexadecimal escape sequences literally when used in regexp constants. You can combine regular expressions with special characters, called regular expression operators or metacharacters , to increase the power and versatility of regular expressions.

The escape sequences described earlier in Escape Sequences are valid inside a regexp. Here is a list of metacharacters. All characters that are not escape sequences and that are not listed here stand for themselves:. This suppresses the special meaning of a character when matching. This matches the beginning of a string. The condition is not true in the following example:. The condition in the following example is not true:. This matches any single character, including the newline character.

Otherwise, NUL is just another character. Other versions of awk may not be able to match the NUL character. This is called a bracket expression. A full discussion of what can be inside the square brackets of a bracket expression is given in Using Bracket Expressions. This is a complemented bracket expression. It matches any characters except those in the square brackets. This is the alternation operator and it is used to specify alternatives. Parentheses are used for grouping in regular expressions, as in arithmetic.

These are Texinfo formatting control sequences. The left or opening parenthesis is always a metacharacter; to match one literally, precede it with a backslash. However, the right or closing parenthesis is only special when paired with a left parenthesis; an unpaired right parenthesis is silently treated as a regular character. This symbol means that the preceding regular expression should be repeated as many times as necessary to find a match. One or two numbers inside braces denote an interval expression.

If there is one number in the braces, the preceding regexp is repeated n times. If there are two numbers separated by a comma, the preceding regexp is repeated n to m times. If there is one number followed by a comma, then the preceding regexp is repeated at least n times:.

As in arithmetic, parentheses can change how operators are grouped. However, many other versions of awk treat such a usage as a syntax error. Interval expressions were not traditionally available in awk. However, beginning with version 4. This is because compatibility with POSIX has become more important to most gawk users than compatibility with old programs. Then the regexp constants are valid and work the way you want them to, using any version of awk.

As mentioned, interval expressions were not traditionally available in awk. In March of , BWK awk finally acquired them. Nonetheless, because they were not available for so many decades, gawk continues to not supply them when in compatibility mode see section Command-Line Options. As mentioned earlier, a bracket expression matches any character among those listed between the opening and closing square brackets.

Within a bracket expression, a range expression consists of two characters separated by a hyphen. This is mainly of historical interest. With the increasing popularity of the Unicode character standard , there is an additional wrinkle to consider. Octal and hexadecimal escape sequences inside bracket expressions are taken to represent only single-byte characters characters whose values fit within the range 0— To match a range of characters where the endpoints of the range are larger than , enter the multibyte encodings of the characters directly.

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The first argument in the list is the full file name of the awk program. The rest of the argument list contains either options to awk , or data files, or both. Some systems limit the length of the interpreter name to 32 characters. Often, this can be dealt with by using a symbolic link. It does not work. The operating system treats the rest of the line as a single argument and passes it to awk.

Doing this leads to confusing behavior—most likely a usage diagnostic of some sort from awk. A comment is some text that is included in a program for the sake of human readers; it is not really an executable part of the program. Comments can explain what the program does and how it works.

Nearly all programming languages have provisions for comments, as programs are typically hard to understand without them. The awk language ignores the rest of a line following a number sign. For example, we could have put the following into advice :. The shell interprets the quote as the closing quote for the entire program. As a result, usually the shell prints a message about mismatched quotes, and if awk actually runs, it will probably print strange messages about syntax errors.

For example, look at the following:. The shell sees that the first two quotes match, and that a new quoted object begins at the end of the command line. It therefore prompts with the secondary prompt, waiting for more input. With Unix awk , closing the quoted string produces this result:.

For short to medium-length awk programs, it is most convenient to enter the program on the awk command line. This is best done by enclosing the entire program in single quotes. This is true whether you are entering the program interactively at the shell prompt, or writing it as part of a larger shell script:.

Once you are working with the shell, it is helpful to have a basic knowledge of shell quoting rules. Before diving into the rules, we introduce a concept that appears throughout this Web page, which is that of the null , or empty, string. The null string is character data that has no value. In other words, it is empty. It is written in awk programs like this: "". In the shell, it can be written using single or double quotes: "" or ''.

Although the null string has no characters in it, it does exist. For example, consider this command:. Here, the echo utility receives a single argument, even though that argument has no characters in it. In the rest of this Web page, we use the terms null string and empty string interchangeably. Now, on to the quoting rules:. Because certain characters within double-quoted text are processed by the shell, they must be escaped within the text.

The leading backslash is stripped first. Thus, the example seen previously in Running awk Without Input Files :. In the second case, awk attempts to use the text of the program as the value of FS , and the first file name as the text of the program! This results in syntax errors at best, and confusing behavior at worst.

Mixing single and double quotes is difficult. You have to resort to shell quoting tricks, like this:. This program consists of three concatenated quoted strings. The first and the third are single-quoted, and the second is double-quoted. Another option is to use double quotes, escaping the embedded, awk -level double quotes:. This option is also painful, because double quotes, backslashes, and dollar signs are very common in more advanced awk programs.

A third option is to use the octal escape sequence equivalents see section Escape Sequences for the single- and double-quote characters, like so:. Here, the two string constants and the value of sq are concatenated into a single string that is printed by print. The following example, courtesy of Jeroen Brink, shows how to escape the double quotes from this one liner script that prints all lines in a file surrounded by double quotes:.

In MS-Windows escaping double-quotes is a little tricky because you use backslashes to escape double-quotes, but backslashes themselves are not escaped in the usual way; indeed they are either duplicated or not, depending upon whether there is a subsequent double-quote. The MS-Windows rule for double-quoting a string is the following:.

Many of the examples in this Web page take their input from two sample data files. The second data file, called inventory-shipped , contains information about monthly shipments. In both files, each line is considered to be one record. The columns are aligned using spaces. The data file inventory-shipped represents information about shipments during the year. Each record contains the month, the number of green crates shipped, the number of red boxes shipped, the number of orange bags shipped, and the number of blue packages shipped, respectively.

There are 16 entries, covering the 12 months of last year and the first four months of the current year. An empty line separates the data for the two years:. This type of pattern is called a regular expression , which is covered in more detail later see section Regular Expressions. The pattern is allowed to match parts of words. In an awk rule, either the pattern or the action can be omitted, but not both. If the pattern is omitted, then the action is performed for every input line. If the action is omitted, the default action is to print all lines that match the pattern.

By comparison, omitting the print statement but retaining the braces makes an empty action that does nothing i. Many practical awk programs are just a line or two long. Following is a collection of useful, short programs to get you started. Most of the examples use a data file named data. This is just a placeholder; if you use these programs yourself, substitute your own file names for data. For future reference, note that there is often more than one way to do things in awk. At some point, you may want to look back at these examples and see if you can come up with different ways to do the same things shown here:.

The sole rule has a relational expression as its pattern and has no action—so it uses the default action, printing the record. This example differs slightly from the previous one: the input is processed by the expand utility to change TABs into spaces, so the widths compared are actually the right-margin columns, as opposed to the number of input characters on each line.

This is an easy way to delete blank lines from a file or rather, to create a new file similar to the old file but from which the blank lines have been removed. The awk utility reads the input files one line at a time. For each line, awk tries the patterns of each rule. If several patterns match, then several actions execute in the order in which they appear in the awk program. If no patterns match, then no actions run.

After processing all the rules that match the line and perhaps there are none , awk reads the next line. However, see section The next Statement and also see section The nextfile Statement. This continues until the program reaches the end of the file. For example, the following awk program contains two rules:. If a line contains both strings, it is printed twice, once by each rule. This is what happens if we run this program on our two sample data files, mail-list and inventory-shipped :.

This example shows how awk can be used to summarize, select, and rearrange the output of another utility. This command prints the total number of bytes in all the files in the current directory that were last modified in November of any year. Its output looks like this:. The sixth, seventh, and eighth fields contain the month, day, and time, respectively, that the file was last modified. Finally, the ninth field contains the file name.

As a result, when awk has finished reading all the input lines, sum is the total of the sizes of the files whose lines matched the pattern. This works because awk variables are automatically initialized to zero. After the last line of output from ls has been processed, the END rule executes and prints the value of sum. In this example, the value of sum is These more advanced awk techniques are covered in later sections see section Actions.

Before you can move on to more advanced awk programming, you have to know how awk interprets your input and displays your output. By manipulating fields and using print statements, you can produce some very useful and impressive-looking reports. Most often, each line in an awk program is a separate statement or separate rule, like this:.

A newline at any other point is considered the end of the statement. The backslash must be the final character on the line in order to be recognized as a continuation character. A backslash followed by a newline is allowed anywhere in the statement, even in the middle of a string or regular expression. We have generally not used backslash continuation in our sample programs.

For this same reason, as well as for clarity, we have kept most statements short in the programs presented throughout the Web page. Backslash continuation is most useful when your awk program is in a separate source file instead of entered from the command line. You should also note that many awk implementations are more particular about where you may use backslash continuation.

For example, they may not allow you to split a string constant using backslash continuation. Thus, for maximum portability of your awk programs, it is best not to split your lines in the middle of a regular expression or a string. But the C shell behaves differently! There you must use two backslashes in a row, followed by a newline. Note also that when using the C shell, every newline in your awk program must be escaped with a backslash.

To illustrate:. To have the pattern and action on separate lines, you must use backslash continuation; there is no other option. Another thing to keep in mind is that backslash continuation and comments do not mix. In this case, it looks like the backslash would continue the comment onto the next line. When awk statements within one rule are short, you might want to put more than one of them on a line. This also applies to the rules themselves. Thus, the program shown at the start of this section could also be written this way:.

NOTE: The requirement that states that rules on the same line must be separated with a semicolon was not in the original awk language; it was added for consistency with the treatment of statements within an action. The awk language provides a number of predefined, or built-in , variables that your programs can use to get information from awk.

There are other variables your program can set as well to control how awk processes your data. In addition, awk provides a number of built-in functions for doing common computational and string-related operations. As we develop our presentation of the awk language, we will introduce most of the variables and many of the functions. They are described systematically in Predefined Variables and in Built-in Functions.

By using utility programs, advanced patterns, field separators, arithmetic statements, and other selection criteria, you can produce much more complex output. The awk language is very useful for producing reports from large amounts of raw data, such as summarizing information from the output of other utility programs like ls.

See section A More Complex Example. Programs written with awk are usually much smaller than they would be in other languages. This makes awk programs easy to compose and use. Often, awk programs can be quickly composed at your keyboard, used once, and thrown away. Because awk programs are interpreted, you can avoid the usually lengthy compilation part of the typical edit-compile-test-debug cycle of software development. Complex programs have been written in awk , including a complete retargetable assembler for eight-bit microprocessors see section Glossary , for more information , and a microcode assembler for a special-purpose Prolog computer.

If you find yourself writing awk scripts of more than, say, a few hundred lines, you might consider using a different programming language. The shell is good at string and pattern matching; in addition, it allows powerful use of the system utilities. Python offers a nice balance between high-level ease of programming and access to system facilities. This chapter covers how to run awk , both POSIX-standard and gawk -specific command-line options, and what awk and gawk do with nonoption arguments.

There are two ways to run awk —with an explicit program or with one or more program files. Here are templates for both of them; items enclosed in […] in these templates are optional:. Doing so makes little sense, though; awk exits silently when given an empty program.

If --lint has been specified on the command line, gawk issues a warning that the program is empty. Options begin with a dash and consist of a single character. GNU-style long options consist of two dashes and a keyword. The keyword can be abbreviated, as long as the abbreviation allows the option to be uniquely identified.

If a particular option with a value is given more than once, it is the last value that counts. The long and short options are interchangeable in all contexts. Read the awk program source from source-file instead of in the first nonoption argument.

This option may be given multiple times; the awk program consists of the concatenation of the contents of each specified source-file. See section Changing The Namespace , for more information on this advanced feature. Set the variable var to the value val before execution of the program begins. Provide an implementation-specific option. These options also have corresponding GNU-style long options.

Note that the long options may be abbreviated, as long as the abbreviations remain unique. The full list of gawk -specific options is provided next. Signal the end of the command-line options. It is also useful for passing options on to the awk program; see Processing Command-Line Options. Cause gawk to treat all input data as single-byte characters. In addition, all output written with print or printf is treated as single-byte characters.

This can often involve converting multibyte characters into wide characters internally , and can lead to problems or confusion if the input data does not contain valid multibyte characters. Specify compatibility mode , in which the GNU extensions to the awk language are disabled, so that gawk behaves just like BWK awk.

Also see Downward Compatibility and Debugging. Print a sorted list of global variables, their types, and final values to file. If no file is provided, print this list to a file named awkvars. No space is allowed between the -d and file , if file is supplied. Having a list of all global variables is a good way to look for typographical errors in your programs. This is a particularly easy mistake to make with simple variable names like i , j , etc.

Enable debugging of awk programs see section Introduction to the gawk Debugger. By default, the debugger reads commands interactively from the keyboard standard input. The optional file argument allows you to specify a file with a list of commands for the debugger to execute noninteractively. No space is allowed between the -D and file , if file is supplied. Provide program source code in the program-text.

This option allows you to mix source code in files with source code that you enter on the command line. This makes building the total program easier. However, this is no longer true. If you have any scripts that rely upon this feature, you should revise them.

See section Changing The Namespace , for more information. Similar to -f , read awk program text from file. There are two differences from -f :. This option is particularly necessary for World Wide Web CGI applications that pass arguments through the URL; using this option prevents a malicious or other user from passing in options, assignments, or awk source code via -e to the CGI application.

Analyze the source program and generate a GNU gettext portable object template file on standard output for all string constants that have been marked for translation. See section Internationalization with gawk , for information about this option.

Read an awk source library from source-file. This option is completely equivalent to using the include directive inside your program. It is very similar to the -f option, but there are two important differences. First, when -i is used, the program source is not loaded if it has been previously loaded, whereas with -f , gawk always loads the file.

Second, because this option is intended to be used with code libraries, gawk does not recognize such files as constituting main program input. Thus, after processing an -i argument, gawk still expects to find the main source code via the -f option or on the command line. Load a dynamic extension named ext. Extensions are stored as system shared libraries. The correct library suffix for your platform will be supplied by default, so it need not be specified in the extension name.

An alternative is to use the load keyword inside the program to load a shared library. This advanced feature is described in detail in Writing Extensions for gawk. Warn about constructs that are dubious or nonportable to other awk implementations. No space is allowed between the -L and value , if value is supplied. Some warnings are issued when gawk first reads your program.

Others are issued at runtime, as your program executes. The optional argument may be one of the following:. Cause lint warnings become fatal errors. This may be drastic, but its use will certainly encourage the development of cleaner awk programs. Only issue warnings about things that are actually invalid are issued.

This is not fully implemented yet. Some warnings are only printed once, even if the dubious constructs they warn about occur multiple times in your awk program. Thus, when eliminating problems pointed out by --lint , you should take care to search for all occurrences of each inappropriate construct.

As awk programs are usually short, doing so is not burdensome. Select arbitrary-precision arithmetic on numbers. Enable automatic interpretation of octal and hexadecimal values in input data see section Allowing Nondecimal Input Data. Use with care.

Also note that this option may disappear in a future version of gawk. Enable pretty-printing of awk programs. Implies --no-optimize. By default, the output program is created in a file named awkprof. The optional file argument allows you to specify a different file name for the output. No space is allowed between the -o and file , if file is supplied.

NOTE: In the past, this option would also execute your program. This is no longer the case. At the moment, this includes just simple constant folding. Optimization is enabled by default. This option remains primarily for backwards compatibility. However, it may be used to cancel the effect of an earlier -s option see later in this list.

Enable profiling of awk programs see section Profiling Your awk Programs. By default, profiles are created in a file named awkprof. The optional file argument allows you to specify a different file name for the profile file. No space is allowed between the -p and file , if file is supplied. The profile contains execution counts for each statement in the program in the left margin, and function call counts for each function. This disables all gawk extensions just like --traditional and disables all extensions not allowed by POSIX.

See section Common Extensions Summary for a summary of the extensions in gawk that are disabled by this option. Also, the following additional restrictions apply:. If you supply both --traditional and --posix on the command line, --posix takes precedence. Allow interval expressions see section Regular Expression Operators in regexps.

Nevertheless, this option remains both for backward compatibility and for use in combination with --traditional. Disable the system function, input redirections with getline , output redirections with print and printf , and dynamic extensions. Also, disallow adding filenames to ARGV that were not there when gawk started running. Print version information for this particular copy of gawk. This allows you to determine if your copy of gawk is up to date with respect to whatever the Free Software Foundation is currently distributing.

It is also useful for bug reports see section Reporting Problems and Bugs. Mark the end of all options. Any command-line arguments following -- are placed in ARGV , even if they start with a minus sign. As long as program text has been supplied, any other options are flagged as invalid with a warning message but are otherwise ignored. This is true only for --traditional and not for --posix see section Specifying How Fields Are Separated.

The -f option may be used more than once on the command line. If it is, awk reads its program source from all of the named files, as if they had been concatenated together into one big file. This is useful for creating libraries of awk functions. These functions can be written once and then retrieved from a standard place, instead of having to be included in each individual program. The -i option is similar in this regard. As mentioned in Function Definition Syntax , function names must be unique.

After typing your program, type Ctrl-d the end-of-file character to terminate it. Because it is clumsy using the standard awk mechanisms to mix source file and command-line awk programs, gawk provides the -e option. This does not require you to preempt the standard input for your source code, and it allows you to easily mix command-line and library source code see section The AWKPATH Environment Variable. As with -f , the -e and -i options may also be used multiple times on the command line.

If no -f option or -e option for gawk is specified, then awk uses the first nonoption command-line argument as the text of the program source code. Arguments on the command line that follow the program text are entered into the ARGV array; awk does not continue to parse the command line looking for options.

For a Bourne-compatible shell such as Bash , you would add these lines to the. For a C shell-compatible shell, 12 you would add this line to the. Any additional arguments on the command line are normally treated as input files to be processed in the order specified.

See Assigning Variables on the Command Line. All the command-line arguments are made available to your awk program in the ARGV array see section Predefined Variables. Command-line options and the program text if present are omitted from ARGV. All other arguments, including variable assignments, are included. The distinction between file name arguments and variable-assignment arguments is made when awk is about to open the next input file.

At that point in execution, it checks the file name to see whether it is really a variable assignment; if so, awk sets the variable instead of reading a file. Therefore, the variables actually receive the given values after all previously specified files have been read. The variable values given on the command line are processed for escape sequences see section Escape Sequences. In some very early implementations of awk , when a variable assignment occurred before any file names, the assignment would happen before the BEGIN rule was executed.

The variable assignment feature is most useful for assigning to variables such as RS , OFS , and ORS , which control input and output formats, before scanning the data files. It is also useful for controlling state if multiple passes are needed over a data file. Given the variable assignment feature, the -F option for setting the value of FS is not strictly necessary. It remains for historical compatibility.

Often, you may wish to read standard input together with other files. For example, you may wish to read one file, read standard input coming from a pipe, and then read another file. You may also use "-" to name standard input when reading files with getline see section Using getline from a File. And, you can even use "-" with the -f option to read program source code from standard input see section Command-Line Options.

Some other versions of awk also support this, but it is not standard. In most awk implementations, you must supply a precise pathname for each program file, unless the file is in the current directory. The search path is a string consisting of directory names separated by colons. If that variable does not exist, or if it has an empty value, gawk uses a default path described shortly.

The search path feature is particularly helpful for building libraries of useful awk functions. The library files can be placed in a standard directory in the default path and then specified on the command line with a short file name. Otherwise, you would have to type the full file name for each file. By using the -i or -f options, your command-line awk programs can use facilities in awk library files see section A Library of awk Functions.

Path searching is not done if gawk is in compatibility mode. This is true for both --traditional and --posix. See section Command-Line Options. It treats a null entry in the path as indicating the current directory. NOTE: To include the current directory in the path, either place. Different past versions of gawk would also look explicitly in the current directory, either before or after the path search.

As of version 4. This provides access to the actual search path value from within an awk program. If the extension is not found, the path is searched again after adding the appropriate shared library suffix for the platform. The search path specified is also used for extensions loaded via the load keyword see section Loading Dynamic Extensions into Your Program. Those in the following list are meant to be used by regular users:.

Specifies the interval between connection retries, in milliseconds. On systems that do not support the usleep system call, the value is rounded up to an integral number of seconds. Specifies the time, in milliseconds, for gawk to wait for input before returning with an error.

See section Reading Input with a Timeout. See section Using gawk for Network Programming. The environment variables in the following list are meant for use by the gawk developers for testing and tuning. They are subject to change. The variables are:. Otherwise, the value should be a number, and gawk uses that number as the size of the buffer to allocate.

This function may be marginally faster than the standard function. If this variable exists, gawk switches to reading source files one line at a time, instead of reading in blocks. Its purpose is to help isolate the source of a message, as there are multiple places that produce the same warning or error message.

Specifies the location of compiled message object files for gawk itself. This is passed to the bindtextdomain function when gawk starts up. This can cause gawk to be slower. Its purpose is to help isolate differences between the two regexp matchers that gawk uses internally. This specifies the amount by which gawk should grow its internal evaluation stack, when needed.

This specifies intended maximum number of items gawk will maintain on a hash chain for managing arrays indexed by integers. This specifies intended maximum number of items gawk will maintain on a hash chain for managing arrays indexed by strings. If this variable exists, gawk uses the mtrace library calls from the GNU C library to help track down possible memory leaks. If the exit statement is used with a value see section The exit Statement , then gawk exits with the numeric value given to it.

This is usually zero. This is usually one. If gawk exits because of a fatal error, the exit status is two. The include keyword can be used to read external awk source files. This gives you the ability to split large awk source files into smaller, more manageable pieces, and also lets you reuse common awk code from various awk scripts. In other words, you can group together awk functions used to carry out specific tasks into external files.

Note that source files may also be included using the -i option. Here is the test1 script:. So, to include external awk source files, you just use include followed by the name of the file to be included, enclosed in double quotes.

NOTE: Keep in mind that this is a language construct and the file name cannot be a string variable, but rather just a literal string constant in double quotes. This is very helpful in constructing gawk function libraries. If you have a large script with useful, general-purpose awk functions, you can break it down into library files and put those files in a special directory. Of course, you can keep library files in more than one directory; the more complex the working environment is, the more directories you may need to organize the files to be included.

Given the ability to specify multiple -f options, the include mechanism is not strictly necessary. However, the include keyword can help you in constructing self-contained gawk programs, thus reducing the need for writing complex and tedious command lines. In particular, include is very useful for writing CGI scripts to be run from web pages. The load keyword can be used to read external awk extensions stored as system shared libraries.

Using load is completely equivalent to using the -l command-line option. For command-line usage, the -l option is more convenient, but load is useful for embedding inside an awk source file that requires access to an extension. It also describes the ordchr extension. A regular expression , or regexp , is a way of describing a set of strings. Because regular expressions are such a fundamental part of awk programming, their format and use deserve a separate chapter.

The simplest regular expression is a sequence of letters, numbers, or both. Such a regexp matches any string that contains that sequence. Other kinds of regexps let you specify more complicated classes of strings. Initially, the examples in this chapter are simple.

As we explain more about how regular expressions work, we present more complicated instances. A regular expression can be used as a pattern by enclosing it in slashes. Then the regular expression is tested against the entire text of each record. Normally, it only needs to match some part of the text in order to succeed. Regular expressions can also be used in matching expressions. These expressions allow you to specify the string to match against; it need not be the entire current input record.

Expressions using these operators can be used as patterns, or in if , while , for , and do statements. See section Control Statements in Actions. For example, the following is true if the expression exp taken as a string matches regexp :.

This next example is true if the expression exp taken as a character string does not match regexp :. One use of an escape sequence is to include a double-quote character in a string constant. Other escape sequences represent unprintable characters such as TAB or newline. There is nothing to stop you from entering most unprintable characters directly in a string constant or regexp constant, but they may look ugly.

The following list presents all the escape sequences used in awk and what they represent. Unless noted otherwise, all these escape sequences apply to both string constants and regexp constants:. This often makes some sort of audible noise. Any further hexadecimal digits are treated as simple letters or numbers. For many years, gawk would continue incorporating hexadecimal digits into the value until a non-hexadecimal digit or the end of the string was encountered.

However, using more than two hexadecimal digits produced undefined results. A literal slash should be used for regexp constants only. Because the regexp is delimited by slashes, you need to escape any slash that is part of the pattern, in order to tell awk to keep processing the rest of the regexp.

A literal double quote should be used for string constants only. Because the string is delimited by double quotes, you need to escape any quote that is part of the string, in order to tell awk to keep processing the rest of the string. In gawk , a number of additional two-character sequences that begin with a backslash have special meaning in regexps.

See section gawk -Specific Regexp Operators. In a regexp, a backslash before any character that is not in the previous list and not listed in gawk -Specific Regexp Operators means that the next character should be taken literally, even if it would normally be a regexp operator. For complete portability, do not use a backslash before any character not shown in the previous list or that is not an operator. If you place a backslash in a string constant before something that is not one of the characters previously listed, POSIX awk purposely leaves what happens as undefined.

There are two choices:. This is what BWK awk and gawk both do. Because this is such an easy bug both to introduce and to miss, gawk warns you about it. Some other awk implementations do this. Suppose you use an octal or hexadecimal escape to represent a regexp metacharacter.

See Regular Expression Operators. Does awk treat the character as a literal character or as a regexp operator? Historically, such characters were taken literally. However, the POSIX standard indicates that they should be treated as real metacharacters, which is what gawk does. In compatibility mode see section Command-Line Options , gawk treats the characters represented by octal and hexadecimal escape sequences literally when used in regexp constants.

You can combine regular expressions with special characters, called regular expression operators or metacharacters , to increase the power and versatility of regular expressions. The escape sequences described earlier in Escape Sequences are valid inside a regexp.

Here is a list of metacharacters. All characters that are not escape sequences and that are not listed here stand for themselves:. This suppresses the special meaning of a character when matching. This matches the beginning of a string. The condition is not true in the following example:. The condition in the following example is not true:. This matches any single character, including the newline character.

Otherwise, NUL is just another character. Other versions of awk may not be able to match the NUL character. This is called a bracket expression. A full discussion of what can be inside the square brackets of a bracket expression is given in Using Bracket Expressions.

This is a complemented bracket expression. It matches any characters except those in the square brackets. This is the alternation operator and it is used to specify alternatives. Parentheses are used for grouping in regular expressions, as in arithmetic. These are Texinfo formatting control sequences. The left or opening parenthesis is always a metacharacter; to match one literally, precede it with a backslash.

However, the right or closing parenthesis is only special when paired with a left parenthesis; an unpaired right parenthesis is silently treated as a regular character. This symbol means that the preceding regular expression should be repeated as many times as necessary to find a match. One or two numbers inside braces denote an interval expression. If there is one number in the braces, the preceding regexp is repeated n times.

If there are two numbers separated by a comma, the preceding regexp is repeated n to m times. If there is one number followed by a comma, then the preceding regexp is repeated at least n times:. As in arithmetic, parentheses can change how operators are grouped.

However, many other versions of awk treat such a usage as a syntax error. Interval expressions were not traditionally available in awk. However, beginning with version 4. This is because compatibility with POSIX has become more important to most gawk users than compatibility with old programs.

Then the regexp constants are valid and work the way you want them to, using any version of awk. As mentioned, interval expressions were not traditionally available in awk. In March of , BWK awk finally acquired them. Nonetheless, because they were not available for so many decades, gawk continues to not supply them when in compatibility mode see section Command-Line Options. As mentioned earlier, a bracket expression matches any character among those listed between the opening and closing square brackets.

Within a bracket expression, a range expression consists of two characters separated by a hyphen. This is mainly of historical interest. With the increasing popularity of the Unicode character standard , there is an additional wrinkle to consider. Octal and hexadecimal escape sequences inside bracket expressions are taken to represent only single-byte characters characters whose values fit within the range 0— To match a range of characters where the endpoints of the range are larger than , enter the multibyte encodings of the characters directly.

For example, the notion of what is an alphabetic character differs between the United States and France. A character class is only valid in a regexp inside the brackets of a bracket expression. Table 3. If your character set had other alphabetic characters in it, this would not match them. This matches all values numerically between zero and , which is the defined range of the ASCII character set.

NOTE: Some older versions of Unix awk treat [:blank:] like [:space:] , incorrectly matching more characters than they should. Caveat Emptor. Two additional special sequences can appear in bracket expressions. These apply to non-ASCII character sets, which can have single symbols called collating elements that are represented with more than one character. They can also have several characters that are equivalent for collating , or sorting, purposes.

These sequences are:. Locale-specific names for a list of characters that are equal. This example uses the sub function to make a change to the input record. But when doing text matching and substitutions with the match , sub , gsub , and gensub functions, it is very important. Understanding this principle is also important for regexp-based record and field splitting see section How Input Is Split into Records , and also see section Specifying How Fields Are Separated.

It may be any expression. The expression is evaluated and converted to a string if necessary; the contents of the string are then used as the regexp. A regexp computed in this way is called a dynamic regexp or a computed regexp :. If you are going to use a string constant, you have to understand that the string is, in essence, scanned twice : the first time when awk reads your program, and the second time when it goes to match the string on the lefthand side of the operator with the pattern on the right.

What difference does it make if the string is scanned twice? The answer has to do with escape sequences, and particularly with backslashes. To get a backslash into a regular expression inside a string, you have to type two backslashes. Only one backslash is needed. Given that you can use both regexp and string constants to describe regular expressions, which should you use? Some older versions of awk do not allow the newline character to be used inside a bracket expression for a dynamic regexp:.

GNU software that deals with regular expressions provides a number of additional regexp operators. These operators are described in this section and are specific to gawk ; they are not available in other awk implementations.

Most of the additional operators deal with word matching. Matches any space character as defined by the current locale. Matches any character that is not a space, as defined by the current locale. Matches any word-constituent character—that is, it matches any letter, digit, or underscore.

Matches any character that is not word-constituent. Matches the empty string at the beginning of a word. Matches the empty string at the end of a word. Matches the empty string at either the beginning or the end of a word i. Matches the empty string that occurs between two word-constituent characters. There are two other operators that work on buffers. In Emacs, a buffer is, naturally, an Emacs buffer. Other GNU programs, including gawk , consider the entire string to match as the buffer.

The operators are:. They are provided for compatibility with other GNU software. An alternative method would have been to require two backslashes in the GNU operators, but this was deemed too confusing. The various command-line options see section Command-Line Options control how gawk interprets characters in regexps:. Interval expressions are allowed. Match traditional Unix awk regexps. The GNU operators are not special, and interval expressions are not available. Characters described by octal and hexadecimal escape sequences are treated literally, even if they represent regexp metacharacters.

Allow interval expressions in regexps, if --traditional has been provided. Otherwise, interval expressions are available by default. Case is normally significant in regular expressions, both when matching ordinary characters i. However, this can be cumbersome if you need to use it often, and it can make the regular expressions harder to read. There are two alternatives that you might prefer. Prior to version 5. However, as of version 5.

Case is always significant in compatibility mode. In the typical awk program, awk reads all input either from the standard input by default, this is the keyboard, but often it is a pipe from another command or from files whose names you specify on the awk command line. If you specify input files, awk reads them in order, processing all the data from one before going on to the next.

The input is read in units called records , and is processed by the rules of your program one record at a time. By default, each record is one line. Each record is automatically split into chunks called fields. This makes it more convenient for programs to work on the parts of a record.

On rare occasions, you may need to use the getline command. The getline command is valuable both because it can do explicit input from any number of files, and because the files used with it do not have to be named on the awk command line see section Explicit Input with getline.

It keeps track of the number of records that have been read so far from the current input file. This value is stored in a predefined variable called FNR , which is reset to zero every time a new file is started. Another predefined variable, NR , records the total number of input records read so far from all data files.

It starts at zero, but is never automatically reset to zero. Normally, records are separated by newline characters. You can control how records are separated by assigning values to the built-in variable RS. If RS is any single character, that character separates records.

Otherwise in gawk , RS is treated as a regular expression. This mechanism is explained in greater detail shortly. Records are separated by a character called the record separator. By default, the record separator is the newline character. This is why records are, by default, single lines. To use a different character for the record separator, simply assign that character to the predefined variable RS. The new record-separator character should be enclosed in quotation marks, which indicate a string constant.

Often, the right time to do this is at the beginning of execution, before any input is processed, so that the very first record is read with the proper separator. Then the input file is read, and the second rule in the awk program the action with no pattern prints each record.

Here are the results of running the program on mail-list :. In the original data file see section Data files for the Examples , the line looks like this:. In fact, this record is treated as part of the previous record; the newline separating them in the output is the original newline in the data file, not the one added by awk when it printed the record! Another way to change the record separator is on the command line, using the variable-assignment feature see section Other Command-Line Arguments :.

The moral is: Know Your Data. When using regular characters as the record separator, there is one unusual case that occurs when gawk is being fully POSIX-compliant see section Command-Line Options. There is one field, consisting of a newline. The value of the built-in variable NF is the number of fields in the current record.

Most other versions of awk also act this way. Reaching the end of an input file terminates the current input record, even if the last character in the file is not the character in RS. The empty string "" a string without any characters has a special meaning as the value of RS.

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