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Civilians also checked the Germans to the north and west of Heraklion and in the town centre. As most Cretan partisans wore no uniforms or insignia such as armbands or headbands, the Germans felt free of all of the constraints of the Hague Conventions and killed armed and unarmed civilians indiscriminately.

Between 2 June and 1 August, persons from the village of Alikianos and its vicinity were killed in mass shootings known as the Alikianos executions. On 3 June, the village of Kandanos was razed to the ground and about of its inhabitants killed. After the war, Student, who ordered the shootings, avoided prosecution for war crimes , despite Greek efforts to have him extradited. The first resistance movement in Crete was established just two weeks after its capture.

Throughout the German occupation in the years that followed, reprisals in retaliation for the involvement of the local population in the Cretan resistance continued. On several occasions, villagers were rounded up and summarily executed. In one of the worst incidents, around 20 villages east of Viannos and west of the Ierapetra provinces were looted and burnt in September , with more than of their inhabitants being massacred.

In August , more than houses in Anogeia were looted and then dynamited. During the same month, nine villages in the Amari Valley were destroyed and people killed in what is now known as the Holocaust of Kedros. The German Air Ministry was shocked by the number of transport aircraft lost in the battle, and Student, reflecting on the casualties suffered by the paratroopers, concluded after the war that Crete was the death of the airborne force.

Hitler, believing airborne forces to be a weapon of surprise which had now lost that advantage, concluded that the days of the airborne corps were over and directed that paratroopers should be employed as ground-based troops in subsequent operations in the Soviet Union. The battle for Crete did not delay Operation Barbarossa.

The delay of Operation Barbarossa was caused by the late spring and floods in Poland. The sinking of the German battleship Bismarck on 27 May distracted British public opinion but the loss of Crete, particularly as a result of the failure of the Allied land forces to recognise the strategic importance of the airfields, led the British government to make changes. Shocked and disappointed with the Army's inexplicable failure to recognise the importance of airfields in modern warfare, Churchill made the RAF responsible for the defence of its bases and the RAF Regiment was formed on 1 February Operation Barbarossa made it apparent that the occupation of Crete was a defensive measure to secure the Axis southern flank.

For a fortnight, Enigma intercepts described the arrival of Fliegerkorps XI around Athens, the collection of 27, registered tons of shipping and the effect of air attacks on Crete, which began on 14 May A postponement of the invasion was revealed on 15 May, and on 19 May, the probable date was given as the next day.

The German objectives in Crete were similar to the areas already being prepared by the British, but foreknowledge increased the confidence of the local commanders in their dispositions. On 14 May, London warned that the attack could come any time after 17 May, which information Freyberg passed on to the garrison.

On 16 May the British authorities expected an attack by 25, to 30, airborne troops in aircraft and by 10, troops transported by sea. The real figures were 15, airborne troops in aircraft and 7, by sea; late decrypts reduced uncertainty over the seaborne invasion. The British mistakes were smaller than those of the Germans, who estimated the garrison to be only a third of the true figure.

The after-action report of Fliegerkorps XI contained a passage recounting that the operational area had been so well prepared that it gave the impression that the garrison had known the time of the invasion. Dated 24 May and headed "According to most reliable source" it said where German troops were on the previous day which could have been from reconnaissance but also specified that the Germans were next going to "attack Suda Bay".

This could have indicated that Enigma messages were compromised. Antony Beevor in and P. Antill in wrote that Allied commanders knew of the invasion through Ultra intercepts. Freyberg, informed of the air component of the German battle plan, had started to prepare a defence near the airfields and along the north coast. He had been hampered by a lack of modern equipment, and the lightly-armed paratroopers had about the same firepower as the defenders, if not more.

Ultra intelligence was detailed but was taken out of context and misinterpreted. Hinsley , the official historian of British intelligence during the war, wrote that the Germans had more casualties in the conquest of Crete than in the rest of the Greek campaign and that the losses inflicted on the 7th Fliegerdivision were huge [ vague ]. It was the only unit of its kind and was not rebuilt. Hinsley wrote that it was difficult to measure the influence of intelligence gained during the battle, because although Ultra revealed German situation reports, reinforcement details and unit identifications and although more intelligence was gleaned from prisoners and captured documents, it was not known how swiftly the information reached Freyberg or how he used it.

The German parachute warfare manual had been captured in , and after the war, Student said that he would have changed tactics had he known this. Field-signals intelligence was obtained, including bombing instructions and information from the Fliegerkorps XI tactical code. Lack of air cover prevented much British air reconnaissance north of Crete, but on 21 May signals intelligence enabled an aircraft to spot a convoy.

After midnight the navy sank twelve ships and the rest scattered, which led to a second invasion convoy being called back. The second convoy was intercepted during the morning of 22 May, despite the cost to the navy of a daylight operation, and no more seaborne attempts were made.

Official German casualty figures are contradictory due to minor variations in documents produced by German commands on various dates. Davin estimated 6, losses, based upon an examination of various sources. Reports of German casualties in British reports are in almost all cases exaggerated and are not accepted against the official contemporary German returns, prepared for normal purposes and not for propaganda.

In , Playfair and the other British official historians, gave figures of 1, Germans killed, 2, wounded, 1, missing, a total of 6, men "compiled from what appear to be the most reliable German records". Exaggerated reports of German casualties began to appear after the battle had ended. Churchill claimed that the Germans must have suffered well over 15, casualties. Buckley, based on British intelligence assumptions of two enemies wounded for every one killed, gave an estimate of 16, casualties.

The official historians recorded Luftwaffe aircraft destroyed and 64 damaged beyond repair by enemy action, with 73 destroyed due to extensive non-combat damage, for a total of aircraft. Another 84 planes had repairable non-combat damage. In , Shores, Cull, and Malizia recorded losses of aircraft destroyed and 64 written off due to damage, a total of aircraft between 13 May and 1 June: in combat, 73 non-combat, 64 written-off, and damaged but repairable.

The British lost 1, killed, 1, wounded, and 11, taken prisoner from a garrison of slightly more than 32, men; and there were 1, dead and wounded Royal Navy personnel. A large number of civilians were killed in the crossfire or died fighting as partisans. Many Cretan civilians were shot by the Germans in reprisal during the battle and in the occupation. German records put the number of Cretans executed by firing squad as 3, and at least 1, civilians were killed in massacres late in Royal Navy shipborne anti-aircraft gun claims for the period of 15—27 May amounted to: "Twenty enemy aircraft At least 15 aircraft appeared to have been damaged For the German occupation of Crete, see Fortress Crete.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. German invasion of Crete during WW2. This article includes a list of general references , but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. November Learn how and when to remove this template message.

Battle of the Mediterranean. Balkans campaign. Greek Campaign. Main article: Battle of Greece. Main article: Battle of Crete order of battle. This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Main article: Battle of Maleme.

Main articles: Battle of Rethymno and Battle of Heraklion. The British feared a propaganda coup if a sovereign monarch under their protection were to be captured and helped him to escape. Davin Victoria University of Wellington. Archived from the original on 5 October Retrieved 22 November Archived from the original PDF on 17 July Retrieved 27 May Archived from the original on 2 March Retrieved 2 March Naval History.

Archived from the original on 8 September The Dupuy Institute. Archived PDF from the original on 15 October Retrieved 19 November Archived from the original on 21 April Retrieved 17 May Bloomsbury Publishing. Archived from the original on 28 September Retrieved 19 July The first convincing demonstration of this potential in operational conditions came in May , when the entire plan for the German airborne capture of Crete was decrypted two weeks before the invasion took place.

Crete: The Battle and the Resistance. London: Penguin. The Monthly. Archived from the original on 4 September Retrieved 11 March New Zealand History online. Archived from the original on 20 August Retrieved 3 June Archived from the original on 2 February Archived from the original on 16 December Retrieved 24 November Archived from the original on 2 July Retrieved 27 April Archived from the original on 15 March Retrieved 15 March Putnam's Sons, New York.

Page The Hunters and the Hunted. Naval Institute Press, pp. Archived from the original on 3 February Retrieved 6 January University of the West of England. Archived from the original on 1 April Retrieved 21 May Ministry of Defence. Archived from the original on 6 April Retrieved 29 May Enigma: The Battle for the Code. In Handel, Michael ed. Intelligence and Military Operations. Studies in Intelligence. Abingdon, Oxfordshire: Routledge.

Retrieved 23 July It appears that General Freyberg was introduced to Ultra only shortly before the battle of Crete began and therefore had no time to become familiar with its proper interpretation. This situation was exacerbated by the fact that 'he was forbidden to show it the information derived from Ultra to anyone or to discuss it with his intelligence staff.

Archived from the original on 19 July Retrieved 10 April This number includes those missing in action. The total number excludes several hundred RN PoWs. Thomas Archived from the original on 21 December Retrieved 20 December Battle Summary. BR 2 rev. London: Admiralty Historical Section. CS1 maint: others link Ansel, Walter Hitler and the Middle Sea. Duke University Press. Antill, Peter D. Crete Germany's lightning airborne assault. Campaign series. Oxford; New York: Osprey Publishing.

Beevor, Antony London: John Murray. Bertke, Donald A. Whitehall Histories. London: Whitehall History in association with Frank Cass. Buckley, Christopher Greece and Crete Second World War, —; a popular military history. London: HMSO. Chappell, Mike Army Commandos — London: Osprey. Churchill, Randolph Spencer; Gilbert, Martin Winston S. Churchill: Finest hour, — Houghton Mifflin. Cloutier, Patrick The London Gazette Supplement. Davin, Daniel Marcus Archived from the original on 18 March Retrieved 4 November English, John Amazon to Ivanhoe: British Standard Destroyers of the s.

Kendal, England: World Ship Society. Gill, George Hermon Royal Australian Navy, — Australia in the War of — 2. Archived from the original on 9 January Greene, Jack; Massignani, Alessandro The Naval War in the Mediterranean — London: Chatham Publishing. Higham, Robin Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. Hill, Maria UNSW Press. Hinsley, F.

British Intelligence in the Second World War. Its influence on Strategy and Operations. History of the Second World War. No ISBN. London: Admiralty: Director of Naval Construction. Archived from the original PDF on 10 June CS1 maint: others link Kavanaugh, Stephen Nimble Books.

Keegan, John The Second World War. Random House. Kiriakopoulos, G. The Nazi Occupation of Crete: — Santa Babara, CA: Praeger. Long, Gavin Greece, Crete and Syria. Australia in the War of — Series One — Army. Canberra: Australian War Memorial. Archived from the original on 11 July MacDonald, Callum The Lost Battle — Crete Murfett, Malcolm H. O'Hara, Vincent P. Otter, Ken []. Durham, UK: G. Pack, S. The Battle for Crete. Playfair, Major-General I.

HMSO ]. Butler, J. Archived from the original on 27 October Retrieved 30 May Richards, Denis []. Archived from the original on 24 September Roskill, S. War at Sea. I 4th impr. Archived from the original on 9 November London: Grub Street. Spencer, John H. Battle for Crete. London: Heinemann. London: Oxford University Press. Taylor, Nancy Margaret []. The Home Front. Archived from the original on 20 December The German Campaigns in the Balkans Spring Dept of the Army Pamphlet. Washington, DC: Dept.

Archived from the original on 4 March Richmond, Surrey: Air Ministry. CS1 maint: others link Vick, Alan Rand Corporation. Whitley, M. Cruisers of World War II. London: Brockhampton Press. Badsey, Stephen Barber, Laurie; Tonkin-Covell, John Freyberg: Churchill's Salamander.

London: Hutchinson. London: Penguin Books. Brown, David Churchill, Winston Spencer New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Clark, Alan []. The Fall of Crete. London: Anthony Blond. Cody, J. Wellington: Historical Publications Branch. Archived from the original on 25 October Retrieved 5 November Comeau, M.

Operation Mercury: Airmen in the Battle of Crete. Elliot, Murray []. Vasili: The Lion of Crete. London, Australia, South Africa Greek pbk. New Zealand: Century Hutchinson. Ewer, Peter Forgotten Anzacs: The Campaign in Greece, Carlton North, Vic. Guard, Julie The total nationwide NO emissions from stationary sources, grouped according to appli- cation sector, are shown in Table S-l, On an uncontrolled basis, utility boilers accounted for about 58 percent of stationary source emissions.

These boilers fired 61 percent coal, 18 percent oil, and 21 percent gas. For all stationary sources, the firing of coal yielded about 51 percent of total NOX, the firing of oil yielded about 8 percent, and the firing of natural gas yielded 30 percent. Organic Solvent 0. Both processes are effective with combustion sources, though most domestic experience has involved suppression of NO formation. Candidate NO suppression approaches include combustion process modification through alteration of operating conditions on existing systems or alternate design of new units; fuel modification through fuel switching, fuel denitrification, or fuel additives; and use of alternate combustion concepts such as catalytic combustion and fluidized bed combustion.

Stack gas NO removal systems, principally, using selective catalytic or noncatalytic reduction, have been extensively applied to combustion systems in Japan. However, experience in the United States has primarily been limited to a few pilot scale demonstrations of catalytic systems and some industrial applications of noncatalytic systems.

Removal of NO from stack gases is also effective with noncombustion sources of NO , chiefly chemical manufacturing. Candidate approaches for this application include catalytic reduction, wet chemical scrubbing, extended and chilled absorption, and adsorption with molecular sieves.

A summary of general stationary source NO control techniques is given on Table S Combustion process modifications have been extensively implemented on existing coal-, oil-, and gas-fired boilers to comply with local emission standards. Combinations of external control techniques such as low excess air firing, flue gas recirculation and staged combustion have yielded emission reductions of up to 60 percent compared to the uncontrolled, baseline emissions of units designed prior to the s.

Staged combustion techniques include biased burner firing, burners out of service, and overfire air injection. A summary of combustion modification concepts is given in Table S Currently, the most commonly applied low NOX technique for coal-fired utility boilers is staged combustion through the introduction of overfire air.

More recently, first generation low NO burners have been installed on some units and found to be at least as effective as overfire air. In fact, new wall-fired units subject to the new source performance standards will generally rely on low NOX burners, enlarged furnace designs, and overfire air combustion. Corner fired units will rely on overfire and low excess air. Fuel cost differentia] nuy exceed NOX, SOX, control costs with coal Large make-up rate of additive for signifi- cant effect; presence of additive as pollu- tant Effectiveness for coal doubtful ; no effect on thermal NOX Halted retrofit appli- cations; requires clean fuels Fuel nitrogen conversion nay require control staging ; may require large nuke-up of lime- stone sulfur absorbent Applications Near-Tern Retrofit utility.

Industrial boil- ers beginning 's; possible coablneil cycle. Reduces local hot stokliiotnetric regions in over- all fuel lean combustion Flame cooling In low, low-temp. Direct supres- slon of thermal NOx mechanism increased flame zone cooling yields lower peak temp. Increased flame zone cooling yields lower peak temp. Similar control levels should also be achievable on large pulverized coal industrial boilers. Current testing activities are attempting to identify and quantify potential operating problems with combustion modifications, such as increased water-wall tube corrosion under reducing conditions.

Such problems are expected to be most prevalent for retrofit applications where the boiler was not designed for low'NOv operation. However, the results of most short term corrosion X tests to date have not indicated this to be a major problem. Retrofit combustion process modifications have also been extensively applied to gas turbines. Water injection has been sucessfully implemented to achieve emission levels of 75 ppm at 15 percent excess oxygen.

Current activity is focusing on development of dry controls using premixing, prevaporizatio"n and controlled mixing for application to new combustor can designs. There has been only limited field implementation of combustion process modifications for other stationary combustion equipment e. The following sequence is being pursued for NO control development for these sources: control from operational fine tuning e. Fuel switching for NOX control is not currently practiced due to the supply shortage of clean fuels.

A number of alternate fuels such as methanol and low-heating-value gas have low NO - forming potential and may be utilized in the 's. The economic incentive for alternate fuel use usually depends on factors other than NO control, e. Fuel oil denitrification, usually as an adjunct to oil desulfurization, shows promise for reducing fuel NOV. This concept may be effective for augmenting combustion modifications for NO,, A X control with the firing of residual oil but is expensive when applied for NO reduction alone.

Fuel additives are not directly effective for suppressing NOV emissions. Their use to suppress fouling X and smoke emissions, however, may permit more extensive use of combustion control methods than would otherwise be practical. Lab-scale tests of catalytic combustion have demonstrated extremely low NO emissions with clean fuels ppm. This concept may see application in the 's to stationary gas turbines and space heating systems.

The potential for replacement of conventional utility and industrial boilers by FBC depends on a number of other factors such as SO control cost tradeoffs and operational flexibility, e. Stack gas treatment for NO removal has been implemented in the U. Here, an additional incentive is the recovery of NO- as a feedstock material. The most widely tested technique is catalytic reduction with selective or nonselective reducing agents. The short supply of reducing agents methane, ammonia coupled with the loss of tail gas HO- as a potential feedstock is causing interest to shift to alternate processes such as molecular sieve absorption and extended absorption.

Flue gas treatment FGT of combustion sources has been at a low level of development in the U. The developmental activity has recently accelerated, however, as a result of increased emphasis on stationary source NO controls in the X national NOV abatement program. Flue gas treatment could be effective in the 's to augment X combustion process modifications on large sources if stringent emission control is required, for example, to comply with a potential short-term NOj ai'r quality standard.

Current developmental activity includes transferring FGT technology from Japan where stringent NO controls are enforced X and demonstrating this technology on pilot and full scale systems in the U. The most advanced processes include selective catalytic reduction and selective noncatalytic reduction. Other techniques under development include electron beam irradiation and wet scrubbing.

However, the dry techniques currently appear to be the most cost effective, even when used in combination with wet flue gas desulfuriration systems. A summary evaluation of NO control techniques for combustion sources is given in Table S Additives for cor- rosion, fouling, participate, smoke, etc. The incremental costs of new burner and enlarged furnace designs installed on new units also fall within this range. Ongoing performance tests are investigating potential side effects of the modifications, such as increased corrosion and particulate emissions with coal firing.

Although less well developed for most industrial boilers, some combustion modifications for these sources are able to decrease NO by up to 50 percent with no efficiency impairment or increase in particulate formation. The most successful techniques are. The energy impacts of applying combustion modification NO controls to utility and industrial A boilers occur largely through the effects on unit fuel-to-steam efficiency. This is usually expressed as an increase or decrease in fuel consumption for a constant output.

Generally, low excess air, flue gas, recirculation and off-stoichiometric combustion have very little effect on efficiency. Low excess air controls actually improve fuel efficiency in many cases. In some cases, taking burners out of service may result in reduced capacity. Reduced air preheat has a slight impact, usually less than 1.

New designs should significantly reduce any adverse efficiency impacts. Generally, these changes have been acceptable. In some cases specific consideration of other emissions has been given in the design or method of application of the NO control technique. Water injection "wet" control is currently the most effective technique for gas turbines, reducing NOX up to 90 percent at costs of 0.

Since both types fire mainly clean fuels, the impact on other emissions is confined primarily to HC, CO, and particulates. Residential and commercial space heating contributes 5 percent of the nation's stationary NO emissions. Emissions of CO and particulates from the major equipment types, residential and commercial warm air furnaces, can be controlled by burner maintenance and tuning.

These techniques are not very effective for NOX reduction, however. The most promising prospect for HO control in space heating systems is for new equipment applications. New low NO systems are A A available at a cost of 10 percent or more above conventional systems. These systems are capable of reducing NO emissions by more than 50 percent, while increasing operating efficiency by more than 5 percent. There has been negligible application of combustion modification to incineration and open burning.

NOX control methods include extended absorption, wet scrubbing, and catalytic reduction. Catalytic reduction was initially practiced but because of catalyst costs, fuel costs and changes in the operating conditions of nitric acid plants, greater use of the extended absorption and wet.

Other minor noncombustlon sources are mainly those that use nitric acid as a feedstock. Control methods are similar to those used for nitric acid manufacturing, fable S-5 gives a summary of tail gas abatement processes and applications.

Recovers ah. Requires re- frigeration. May require an evaporator to produce a concentrated ammonium nitrate by prod- uct. No refrigeration required. Prltchard Grande Paroisse P. Nltrant, Tampa. Chemicals, Yazoo City, Miss. Comlnco Plant, Beatrice Neb. Ohio 9 U. Nitrogen PH. Dlnmitt, Texas Chevron Co.

Industries, Fremont, N. Cyanamid, Welland, Ont. Columbia Nitrogen, Augusta, Ga. Location not available Nltram plants 1n Tampa, Fla. Berseimrr, Ala. Army, Hols ton, ' Kingston, Tenn. Inoperable, disiiuntleil i 1 I. The first control techniques document was updated in January to include later developments in regulatory control of NOX and emission control techniques for stationary sources. Since the second edition, still further developments have occurred.

These developments have been largely in the field of control of NO emissions from combustion. Consequently, the current revisions have been limited to the combustion sections leaving the other parts of the text unchanged except for the addition of text to show the dates of the various cost data.

Efforts have proceeded on methods which suppress NO formation through combustion process modification and on methods which remove NO from the flue or tail gases through stack gas treatment. Work is continuing in these areas. Combustion process modification is the commonly used method for control of stationary combustion sources,accounting for 98 percent of stationary source NO control.

Process modifications have been extensively applied to retrofit of-existing utility and industrial boilers and gas turbines firing gas and oil. The significant role of fuel-bound nitrogen in NO formation with the firing of coal and heavy oils was shown early in the control, development effort.

Current activity is concentrating on refinement of fuel NO control methods for application to advanced designs of coal-fired combustion equipment. Progress has also been made in the design of low-NO residential and commercial space heating systems. Stack gas treatment is the commonly used method for control of NO emissions from stationary noncombustion sources. These sources, primarily nitric acid plants, contribute less than 2 percent of nationwide stationary sources NO emissions but can present a serious local hazard.

Reductions in NOV in excess of 95 percent have been demonstrated. X The purpose of this report is to update and revise the control techniques document issued in by incorporating improved emissions estimates and NO control technology developments since that time.

Emphasis is placed on identifying the significant stationary sources of NO emissions, based on the most recent EPA emissions data Section 2 ; summarizing the developmental status of candidate NO control techniques Section 3 ; and reviewing the effectiveness, cost and user experience with the implementation of NOV controls on large combustion sources Section 4 , other A combustion sources Section 5 , and noncombustion sources Section 6.

Also included in these sections is information on the energy and environmental impacts of the various control techniques as required by Section This report is concerned only with the quantifying and controlling stationary source NOV A emissions. Section 2. X Section 2. Of these, nitric oxide NO and nitrogen dioxide NO, are emitted in sufficient quantities in fuel combustion and chemical manufacturing to be significant in atmospheric pollution.

In this document, "NOX" refers to either or both of these two gaseous oxides of nitrogen. Nitrogen dioxide is deleterious to human respiratory functions and is a key participant in the formation of photo- chemical smog. Nitric oxide, taken alone, is relatively less harmful but is important as the main precursor to NO- formation in the atmosphere.

Approximately 95 percent of oxides of nitrogen from stationary combustion sources are emitted as nitric oxide. Two separate mechanisms, thermal NOX formation and fuel NO formation, have been identified as generating NO during fossil fuel combustion. Thermal NOX results from the thermal fixation of molecular nitrogen and oxygen in the combus- tion air. Virtually all thermal NO is formed at the region of the flame which is at the highest temperature.

The NO concentration is subsequently "frozen" at the level prevailing in the high temperature region fay the thermal quenching of the combustion gases. The flue gas NOX concentrations are therefore between the equilibrium level characteristic of the peak flame temperature and the equilibrium 'level at the flue gas temperature.

This kinetically controlled behavior means that thermal NO emissions are dominated by local combustion conditions. Its formation rate is strongly affected by the rate of mixing of the fuel and airstream in general and by the local oxygen concentration in particular. The flue gas NO concen- tration due to fuel nitrogen is typically only a fraction e.

Thus, fuel NO formation, like thermal NO formation, is dominated by the local combustion conditions. Additionally, fuel NO X A emissions are dependent on the nitrogen content of the fuel. The NO emissions characterization detailed in this section, therefore, takes account of variations in equipment operating conditions and 1n fuel type which influences the emissions as well as the potential for control. Additional discussion on thermal and fuel NO formation mechanisms is given in Section 3.

Oxides of nitrogen emitted in the byproduct streams of chemical manufacturing nitric acid, explosives are predominantly in the form of NO-. The NO- concentration in the process vents is typically at the equilibrium level characteristic of the chemical compositions and. The NO emissions from noncombustion sources are then much X less sensitive to minor process modifications than are combustion generated NO emissions.

This method was developed for the measurement of nitrate i-n solution by Chamot around Reference The specifications for the PDS method are given in Reference Briefly, the method requires that a grab sample be collected in an evacuated flask containing a dilute sulfuric acid-hydrogen peroxide solution which absorbs the nitrogen oxides, except nitrous oxide NgO. The sample is then processed following the procedures of Reference The absorbence of nm wavelength light by the treated samples is then measured.

A calibrated relationship between absorbence and NO, concentration is used to relate the measurement to the sample NOg concentration. The advantages of the PDS method include the wide concentration range, minimum number of sample handling steps, and lack of interference with sulfur dioxide in the flue gases. The disadvantages are the long time elapsed between samples, a possible interference from halides, and the Inherent problems with grab sampling.

The most common type of instrument method is the chemiluminescence method. This method is described in Reference The first A division is by application and the second by use sector. The six applications encompass all major sources and the cited sectors include all those of importance within each sector. Steam generation is by far the largest application on a capacity basis for both utility and industrial equipment while space heating is the largest application by number of installations.

Internal combustion engines both reciprocating and gas turbines in the petroleum and related products industries have generally been limited to pipeline pumping and gas compressor applications. Process heating data are not as readily available, but the main sources appear to be process heaters in petroleum refineries, the metallurgical industry, and the drying and curing ovens in the broad-ranging ceramics industry.

Incineration by both the municipal and industrial sectors is a small but noticeable source, primarily in urban areas. Noncombustion sources are largely within the area of chemical manufacture, more specifically nitric and adipic acids and explosives. The final descrip- tion level in Figure gives the important equipment types. Although these equipment categories do not include all the possible variations or hybrid units, the bulk of the equipment is included in the breakdown.

As shown, transportation or mobile sources , stationary source fuel combustion, and industrial processes are the major NO emission sources. In the following sections, equipment descriptions, nationwide NO emissions estimates, and NOV emission A A factors will be presented for sources in the stationary fuel combustion and industrial processes categories.

Transportation NOX sources are not addressed in this document. Stationary sources of NO emissions. Organic 0. In Section 2. Nationwide NO emissions estimates for and NO emission factors are presented for each major Industrial source. The nationwide NOX emissions estimates are. Industrial electric generating boilers will generally be smaller than the sizes identified in this range as indicated in the next subsection.

In general, utility boiler thermal efficiencies range up to 90 percent of the heat liberated during fuel combustion. Approximately half of this heat energy is absorbed by radiant heat transfer to the furnace walls. However, because of the various thermodynamic cycle and mechanical losses, total power plant fuel-to- electric efficiencies are considerably lower, around 34 to 38 percent. Although there are some differences among utility boiler designs in such factors as furnace volume, operating pressure, and configuration of internal heat transfer surface, the principle distinction is firing mode.

This includes the type of firing equipment, the fuel handling system, and the placement of the burners on the furnace walls. The major firing modes are: single- or opposed-wall-fired, tangentially-fired, turbo-fired, and cyclone-fired. All of the major firing types can be designed to burn fossil fuels - gas, oil and coal, either singly or in combination.

However, the cyclone unit is primarily designed to fire coal as the principal fuel. All of the coal-fired units use pulverized coal except for the cyclone units which use crushed coal and the stokers which accept' lumps of coal.

In addition to differences in firing mode, coal, depending on its ash characteristics, is burned in either a dry-bottom or wet-bottom slag tap furnace. Dry-bottom units operate at temperatures below the ash-fusion temperature, and ash is removed as a solid. For wet-bottom furnaces the ash is removed as a molten slag through a bottom tap.

Although wet bottom units were once used extensively in burning low ash-fusion temperature coals, they are less frequently used due to operational problems with low sulfur coals and because their high combustion temperatures promote HOV formation. A In single-wall firing front-wall burners are mounted normal to a single furnace wall. When greater capacity is required, horizontally opposed-wall firing furnaces are normally used.

Generally, capacities for these units exceed MW thermal input Reference Burners on the single-wall and opposed-wall firing designs are usually register type where fuel and combustion air are combined in the burner throat. Turbo-fired units are similar to the horizontally opposed-wall-fired units except that burners are mounted on opposed, downward inclined furnace walls.

Fuel and combustion air are introduced into the combustion zone where rapid mixing occurs. In tangential firing, arrays of fuel and air nozzles are located at each of the four corners of the combustion chamber. Each nozzle is directed tangentially to a small firing circle in the center of the chamber. The resulting spin of the four "flames" creates sufficient turbulence for thorough mixing of fuel and air in the combustion zone.

In the cyclone furnace design fuel and air are introduced circumferentially into a water- cooled, cylindrical combustion chamber to produce a highly swirling, high temperature flame. The cyclone was originally developed as a slagging furnace to burn low ash-fusion temperature coals, but has recently been used successfully on lignite. Relatively high levels of thermal NOX formation accompany the high temperatures of slagging operation.

Due to the inability of this design to readily adapt to low NO operation, this type of furnace is no longer being constructed. These units provide a long-residence time combustion which efficiently burns low-volatile fuels such as anthracite. Vertical-fired boilers are no longer sold, and relatively few of these units are found in the field. Stoker-fired units are designed for solid fuel firing. Unlike liquid, gaseous or pulverized fuels which are burned in suspension, the stoker employs a fuel bed.

This bed is either a stationary grate through which ash falls or a moving grate which dumps the ash into a hopper. The main types of stokers are overfeed and underfeed designs. Spreader stokers are overfeed designs and distribute the fuel by pneumatically or mechanically projecting the fuel into the furnace where it falls evenly over the fuel bed.

Other overfeed stokers generally deposit fuel on a continuously moving grate. Underfeed designs introduce fuel beneath the fuel bed. Ash is pushed aside by the newly introduced fuel. Tangential firing, single-wall and horizontally opposed-wall firing, and turbofurnace firing accounted for about 40 and 36 and 14 percent of the fuel consumed by utility boilers in the mids Reference Cyclone, vertical and stoker designs make up the remainder of utility units.

Recent trends indicate a continued strong movement toward pulverized coal-fired boilers. Many previously ordered oil-fired units are being converted to coal firing during the design phase. Historically, the trend was toward increasing unit capacities. However, this appears to have slowed in recent years with many utilities electing to install two small boilers rather than a single larger unit Reference Nationwide NOX emissions estimates for from electric utility boilers are shown in Table according to the type of fuel consumed Reference For utility boilers Figure should be used in conjunction with Table to determine NOX emissions from natural gas combustion at reduced boiler loads.

Total nitrogen oxides expressed as N To express these factors as NO, multiply by a factor of 0. Includes traveling grate, vibrating grate, and chain grate stokers. Used primarily in large commercial and general industrial applications. Several combustion mod. Combinations of these modifications have been employed for further reductions in certain boilers. GNitrogen oxides emissions from residual oil combustion in industrial and commercial boilers are strongly related to fuel nitrogen content, estimated more accurately by the empirical relationship: ,?

For residual oils having high Q. Test results indicate that 95 wt. At reduced loads, multiply this factor by the load reduction coefficient given in Figure Load reduction coefficient as a function of boiler load. Reference Industrial boilers are either field-erected or packaged units. Field erected boilers are typically of the watertube design.

Packaged boilers, which are equipped and shipped from the factory complete with fuel burning equipment, are mainly watertube and firetube designs. Other designs such as cast iron, and shell type are also used in packaged designs. Each of these designs has a fairly distinct capacity range. Packaged boilers far out-number field- erected units, but their combined fuel consumption is less than that of field-erected boilers. In watertube boilers, hot gases pass over tubes which are water or steam filled.

The tubes line the combustion chamber walls and gain heat mainly by radiative heat transfer from the flame. Downstream the combustion chamber heat is absorbed convectively with tubes mounted across the hot gas flow. Almost all package boilers greater than about 8. Population statistics for indicate that 74 percent of the industrial boiler capacity was composed of watertube boilers and the remaining 26 percent were predominantly firetube boilers. Of the watertube boilers burning fossil fuels, 43 percent were predominately natural gas-fired, 32 percent were predominately oil-fired, 15 percent were stoker coal-fired, and 10 percent were pulverized coal-fired.

Less than 5 percent of the industrial boiler capacity is supplied by non-fossil fuel-fired boilers. In firetube boilers hot gases are directed from the combustion chamber through tubes which are submerged in water. Firetube boilers generally burn fuel oil and natural gas because the design is particularly sensitive to fouling with ash-containing fuels. Natural gas and distillate oil are the main fuels for the smaller watertube units.

All fossil fuels are represented in the large watertube industrial boiler category. Tables , , and present NO emissions factors that are applicable to industrial boilers burning coal. Tables , , and present NO emissions factors for industrial boilers burning oil, gas, and liquefied petroleum gas LPG , respectively.

Emission factors for NO from industrial boilers burning wood waste and bagasse are presented in Tables and References and Nitrogen oxides expressed as NOg. TABLE These factors should be applied only to that fraction of steam resulting from bagasse combustion. Emissions are expressed in terms of wet bagasse, containing approximately 50 percent moisture, by weight. About 2 kg 4.

Warm air furnaces are subdivided into space heaters, where the unit is located in the room which it heats, and central heaters which use ducts to transport and discharge warm air into the heated space. Space heaters comprise less than 10 percent of the nation's heaters. Central heaters make up the remainder of the warm air heater equipment sector.

Combustion products pass through flue gas passages of the heat exchanger and exit through a flue to the atmosphere. Boilers used for residential space heating are generally cast iron desigps. Residential warm air furnaces and cast iron boilers are available in sizes up to 0. Larger units are mainly confined to the commercial and institutional sector.

Commercial and institutional systems are used for space heating and hot water generation. The equipment consists mainly of gas- and oil-fired warm air furnaces and firetube boilers. The rated heat input, or fuel consumption, of this equipment ranges from 0. Fuels burned for residential and cnmmercial space heating are primarily natural gas and distillate oil and much smaller amounts of coal, residual oil, LPG, and wood.

Nationwide NO emissions estimates for from commercial and residential combustion sources are given in Table according to the type of fuel burned Reference Emission factor data for NO emissions from commercial and residential sources are presented in Tables , , to , and Equipment descriptions and N L emission factors for the internal combustion engine and gas turbine sources are presented in the following sections.

Reciprocating 1C engines for stationary applications range in capacity from 15 kW 20 hp to 37 MW 50, hp. These engines are either compression ignition CI units fueled by diesel oil or a combination of natural gas and diesel oil dual , or spark ignition SI fueled by natural gas or gasoline. In CI engines, air is first compression heated in the cylinder, and the diesel fuel is injected into the hot air where ignition is spontaneous.

In SI engines, combustion is spark initiated with the natural gas or gasoline being introduced either by injection or premixed with the combustion air in a carburetted system. Either 2- or 4-stroke power cycle designs with various combinations of fuel charging, air charging, and chamber design are available.

These units are used in a variety of applications because of their relatively short construction and installation time and the fact that they can be operated remotely. Applications range from shaft power forjarge electrical generators to small air compressors and welders.

These types of engines are generally used to power pipeline compressors. Emission factors are presented in terms of gas flow and in terms of energy produced Reference NOX emission factors for large bore diesel and dual fuel engines are given in Table Reference Gas turbines are rotary internal combustion engines fueled by natural gas, diesel or distillate fuel oils, and occasionally residual or crude oils.

The basic gas turbine consists of a compressor, combustion chambers, and a turbine. The compressor delivers pressurized combustion air to the combustors at compression ratios of up to 20 to 1. The hot combustion gases are rapidly quenched by secondary dilution air and then expanded through the turbine which drives the compressor and provides'shaft power. In some applications, exhaust gases are also expanded through a power turbine.

This makes it passible to recover some of the thermal energy in the exhaust gases and to increase thermal efficiency. A third type of turbine is the combined-cycle gas turbine. In aeneral, NO emissions will increase with increasing load and intake manifold air temperature and decrease with increasing air-fuel ratios excess air rates and absolute humidity.

Factors are for engines operated at rated load and speed. In some cases, the waste heat boiler is also designed to burn additional fuels to supplement steam production, a process which is referred to as supplementary firing. Gas turbines have been extremely popular in the past decade because of the relatively short construction lead times, low cost, ease and speed of installation, and low physical profile Idw buildings, short stacks, little visible emissions.

In addition, features like remote operation, low maintenance, high power-to-weight ratio, and short startup time have added to their popularity. Primary applications of gas turbines include electricity generation peaking and caseload , pumping, gas compression, standby electricity generation, and miscellaneous Industrial uses.

National NOV emissions estimates for gas turbines and internal combustion engines combined X -. Table presents NO emission factors for electric utility turbines, while X Table gives factors for NO emissions from gas turbines used to power pipeline compressors Reference In addition, there are dozens of industrial processes that burn smaller amounts of fuel, such as coffee roasting, drum cleaning, painting curing ovens, and metal ore smelting, to name only a few.

Brief process descriptions for some of the more significant NO emission sources are given in the following paragraphs. NO emissions from the industrial process equipment sector are the most difficult to quantify of all stationary sources. This is largely due to the extreme diversity of equipment types currently in use. Nationwide NO emissions estimates for the X more significant industrial processes over the period to are presented in Table Reference L f- These factors are for compressor engines operated at rated load.

The most important combustion processes are sinter lines, coke ovens, open hearth A furnaces, soaking pits and reheat furnaces. The remaining combustion-related processes palletizing, heat treating, and finishing are less important because they use relatively small" amounts of fuel Reference Sintering machines are used to agglomerate ore fines, flue dust, and coke breeze for charging of a blast furnace. The use of this operation is presently declining because of its inability to accommodate rolling mill scale which is contaminated with rolling oil.

Coke ovens produce metallurgical coke from coal by the distillation of volatile matter, thereby producing coke oven gas. The fuels commonly used in this process are coke oven gas and blast furnace gas. Although NO emissions are minimized by slow mixing in combustion chambers, they X are nonetheless substantial because of the very large quantity of fuel consumed in this process. Open hearth furnaces are now being replaced in the U. Soaking pits and reheat furnaces are used to.

Current trends are toward continuous casting of molten metal, and the need for the soaking and reheat units is being reduced. At present, however, soaking pits and reheating furnaces still consume more fuel than any other single process in the steel industry. In spite of the fact that soaking pits and reheat furnaces are being phased out, consumption of process fuel continues to increase in the iron and steel industry as a whole.

Tables to present NOV emission factors for the various emission sources within the A Iron and steel industry. Table presents emission factors for the coking process. Table gives NO emission factors that are applicable to gray iron furnaces. All NO emission factors for iron and steel processes were obtained from Reference Melters in the glass industry are continuous reverbatory furnaces fueled by natural gas and oil.

Coal is not suitable for these furnaces because of its inherent impurities. Annealing lehrs control the cooling of the formed glass to prevent stains from occurring. Some lehrs are direct-fired by atmospheric, premix, or excess-air burners. About 80 percent of the total industry fuel consumption goes for melting, while annealing lehrs consume about 15 percent. There is a current trend in the glass industry towards electric melters, or at least electrically assisted conventional melters.

But until it becomes clearer which fuels are going to be available in the future, no definite trends will emerge. Present trends toward fuel oil in place of natural gas have begun as a result of natural gas shortages and price increases. Nitrogen oxide emission factors for basic glass manufacturing are presented in Table Table presents NO emission factors specifically for glass fiber manufacturing, a subcategory of the glass manufacturing industry. Emission factors for both tables were obtained from Reference These kilns are rotary cylindrical devices up to m feet in length which contain a feedstock combination of calcium, silicon, aluminum, iron, and various other trace metals.

This mixture of elements in. Coal, fuel oil, and natural gas are the main fuels used in cement kilns. As of natural gas accounted for 45 percent of the fuel consumed, coal for 40 percent, and fuel oil for 15 percent. The major effluent stream for this process is the exhaust gas which passes through the entire length of the kiln and may entrain additional particulate or trace metals from the kiln feedstock. Cement industry figures for the past 20 years show that the industry has grown at an average rate of 1.

Table gives NO emission factors for both wet and dry process cement manufacturing. All X emission factors were obtained from Reference Catalytic cracking is required for a large portion of gasoline production. Fuel is consumed in this operation in the catalyst regeneration procedure which removes coke and tars from the catalyst surface.

Future growth of catalytic cracking will depend on the national energy and environmental policies, and particularly on the demand for low sulfur fuel oil. Catalytic reforming is a process where paraffinic hydrocarbons are converted into aromatic compounds.

Delayed coking is an energy extensive process which uses severe cracking to convert residual pitch and tar to gas, naptha, heating oil and other more valuable products. Hydrotreating is a process designed to remove impurities such as sulfur, nitrogen, and metals to prepare cracking or reformer feedstock. Process heating fuels used by the refinery industry are primarily natural gas and refining gas, along with some residual oils and petroleum coke.

Projections are for a 2. The fuel mix expected for the future is highly dependent on both availability and costs of the preferred fuels, and is therefore very difficult to project until national energy priorities are established and the question of natural gas price regulations is settled.

Nationwide NO emissions estimates from petroleum refineries, are presented in Table Reference References and were used to obtain NOX emission factors for petroleum refinery sources. Table presents the petroleum refinery emission factor data. Hay be higher due to the combustion of ammonia. Typically, a kiln is operated in conjunction with a drier which recovers part of the heat contained in the exhaust gases.

Kilns are fueled by coal,. Combustion products are ducted from the kiln to a drfer, where wet clay products undergo an initial drying process. Occasionally, when higher temperatures are needed for drying, a secondary combustion process is used in the drier itself. NO emission factors for brick manufacturing were obtained from Reference and are presented in Table Oxides of nitrogen are chemically released during the production of nitric acid, adipic acid, terephthalic acid, acrylonitrile, adiponitrile, and explosives.

Tables to present NO emission factors for nitric acid, adipic acid, and explosives manufacturing, respectively. Uncontrolled NO emissions from a terephthalic acid reactor are 6. Uncontrolled NOX emissions from acrylonltrile and adiponitrile production are 4. Other Industrial processes such as primary copper smelting, coffee roasting, lime production, nitrate fertilizer production, and ammonia production also generate oxides of nitrogen in lesser amounts.

NO emission factors for these minor industrial sources are presented in Table References to Nationwide NO emissions estimates for some of the minor categories including ammonia, explosives, organic chemicals, and pulp mills are presented in Table The nationwide HO emissions from solid waste disposal are presented in Table Each of the solid waste disposal NO sources are briefly described in the following paragraphs.

NO emission factors are presented for each category of incineration. The most common type of refuse incincerator consists of a refractory-lined chamber with a grate upon which refuse is burned. Combustion products are formed by heating and burning of refuse on the grate.

Production rates are in terms of total weight of product water and acid. Although large quantities of N20 are also produced, N? Uncontrolled emission factors are after scrubber processing since hydrocarbon recovery using scrubbers is an integral part of adipic acid manufacturing. Nitric Acid Concentrator Boiling Tubs , avg. It is assumed that NO emissions are unaffected by the scrubber.

Use low end of range for modern, efficient units and high end for older, less efficient units. Apparent reductions in NOX after control may not be significant because these values are based on only one test result. For product with low nitrogen content 12 percent , use high end of range. For products with higher nitrogen content, use lower end of range. Little nitrogen oxide is formed because of the relatively low combustion temperatures. Based on limited test data from a single asphaltic concrete plant.

Divide by two to obtain factors per unit of limestone feed to the kiln. Factors for hydrators are per unit of hydrated lime produced. Calcimatic kilns generally employ stone preheaters. All factors represent emissions after the kiln exhaust passes through a preheater.

These factors represent emissions after smokeless flares with fuel gas and steam injection or tail gas incinerators. Nitrogen oxide emissions increase'with an increase in the temperature of the combustion zone, an increase in the residence time iri the combustion zone before quenching, and an increase in the excess air rates to the point where dilution cooling overcomes the effect of increased oxygen concentration References to NO emission factors for refuse incinerators are given in Table References to Incineration is being used to dispose of sewage sludge because it destroys the organic matter present in sludge, leaving only an odorless, sterile ash, and also reduces the solid mass by about 90 percent.

The most prevalent types of sewage sludge incinerators are multiple hearth and fluldized bed units. In multiple hearth units the sludge enters the top of the furnace where it is first dried by contact with the hot, rising-, combustion gases, and then burned as it moves slowly down through the lower hearths. At the bottom hearth any residual ash is then removed. In fluidized bed reactors, the combustion takes place in a hot,, suspended bed of sand with much of the ash residue being swept out with the flue gas.

In both types of furnace an auxiliary fuel may be required either during startup or when the moisture content of the sludge is too high to support combustion. NO emission factors for sewage sludge incinerators were obtained from Reference and are X presented in Table Auto incinerators consist of a single primary combustion chamber in which one or several partially stripped cars are burned.

Approximately 30 to 40 minutes is required to burn two bodies simultaneously. As many as 50 cars per day can be burned in this batch-type operation, depending on the capacity of the incinerator. Continuous operations in which cars are placed on a conveyor belt and passed through a tunnel-type incinerator have capacities of more than 50 cars per 8-hour day. Both the degree of combustion as determined by the incinerator design and the amount of combustible material left on the car greatly affect emissions.

Some auto incinerators are designed for two stage combus- tion, using afterburner control devices; Afterburners result in a reduction of both NO emissions and the emissions of the other criteria pollutants. Conical burners are generally a truncated metal cone with a screened top vent.

The charge 1s placed on a raised grate by either conveyor or bulldozer; however, the use of a conveyor results 1n more efficient burning. No supplemental fuel 1s used, but combustion air 1s often supplemented by underflre air blown Into the chamber below the grate and by overflre air Introduced through peripheral openings 1n the shell. The quantities and types of pollutants released from conical burners are dependent on the composition and moisture content of the charged material, control of combustion air, type of charging system used, and the condition In which the Incinerator 1s maintained.

The most critical of these factors seems to be the level of maintenance on t! It 1s not uncommon for conical burners to have missing doors and numerous holes 1n the shell, resulting 1n excessive combustion air, low temperatures, and therefore, Mgh emission rates of combustible pollutants.

NO emission factors for conical burners handling municipal and wood refuse are presented 1n Table Reference Open burning can be done In open drums or baskets, 1n fields and yards, and 1n large open dumps or pits. Materials commonly disposed of In this manner are municipal waste, auto body components, landscape refuse, agricultural field refuse, wood refuse, bulky Industrial refuse, and leaves.

Ground-level open burning 1s affected by many variables Including wind, ambient tempera- ture, composition and moisture content of the refuse burned, and compactness of the pile. In general, the relatively low temperatures associated with open burning suppress the emission of nitrogen oxides. Estimates of nationwide NO emissions from open burn1 ig are given in Table NO emission factors for the open burning of nonagr1cultural materials are presented 1n Table Reference Nationwide NO emissions estimates for miscellaneous sources such as th?

Available NOX emission factors for forest fires and explosives detonation are presented in Tables and References and Geographic areas are specifically defined in Reference Pratt, and H. See Also: Hamil, H. May December 1, Environmental Protection Agency. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. July August March Buening, C. Morton, and J. October September It is intended to provide a broad perspective on the various suggested concepts for NO control by combustion process modification and flue gas treatment for combustion sources and by tail gas cleanup for noncombustion sources.

A more detailed review of the status of development, effectiveness, and cost of control implementation on specific equipment types is given in Sections 4, 5, and 6. This section describes the four most popular methods: modification of the operating conditions, equipment design modification, fuel modification, and use of alternate combustion processes.

The section begins by describing general concepts on NO formation and control during combustion. Much of the material in Section 3. With residual oil, X crude oil, and coal, the contribution from fuel bound nitrogen can be significant and, in certain cases, predominant.

Little is known about the extent of conversion to NO of these nitrogen compounds, or of the effects of combustion modifications on this mechanism. Nitric oxide NO is the major product, even though N02 is-thermodynamically favored at lower temperatures. The residence time in most stationary combustion processes is too short for signifi- cant NO to be oxidized to NCL. The detailed chemical mechanism for thermal NO formation is not fully understood. In the flame zone itself, the Zeldovich mechanism with the equilibrium oxygen assumption is not adequate to account for experimentally observed NO formation rates.

Several investigators have observed the production of significant amounts of "prompt" NO, which is formed very rapidly in the flame front References through , but there is not general agreement on how it is produced. Of course, in an actual combustor, both the hydrocarbon and NO kinetics are directly coupled to turbulent mixing in the flame zone.

It reflects the strong dependence of NO formation on temperature. It also shows that NO formation is directly proportional to NX concen- tration and to residence time, and proportional to the square root of oxygen concentration. Based on the above relations, thermal NO can theoretically be reduced using four tactics: j " ' A ' 1 Reduce local nitrogen concentrations at peak temperature; 2 Reduce local oxygen concentrations at peak temperature; 3 Reduce the residence time at peak temperature; and 4 Reduce peak temperature.

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